top of page
Search

Jane Goodall's Legacy: Anthropogenic Provisioning and the Evolution of Primatological Ethics

A person offers a banana to a chimpanzee in a forest; another chimp sits on rocks near people with cameras at a zoo with a no-feeding sign.

1. Introduction: The Shore of Lake Tanganyika and the Young Jane Goodall

In the summer of 1960, a twenty-six-year-old British researcher named Jane Goodall arrived on the eastern shore of Lake Tanganyika, in what was then the Gombe Stream Game Reserve of Tanganyika Territory. Her arrival marked the inception of what would become the longest continuous field study of any animal species in the history of science. At the time, the scientific understanding of the chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) was fragmented, derived largely from captive studies or brief, disjointed expeditions that failed to penetrate the complex social veil of the species.1

The prevailing anthropological dogma of the mid-20th century was defined by a rigid boundary between human and animal. This boundary was largely predicated on the concept of "Man the Toolmaker," a definition that posited tool use as the exclusive province of humanity, a singular evolutionary leap that separated Homo sapiens from the rest of the natural world.3 Goodall’s mandate, sponsored by the renowned paleoanthropologist Louis Leakey, was to observe the wild chimpanzee in its natural habitat to glean insights into the behavior of early hominids. Leakey reasoned that by understanding the behavior of our closest living relatives—who share approximately 98.6% of our DNA—science could reconstruct the social and ecological pressures that shaped human evolution.4

However, the reality of the Gombe terrain and its inhabitants presented an immediate and formidable barrier. The chimpanzees of the Kasakela community were unhabituated, fearful of the "white ape" that had invaded their territory. For months, Goodall’s observations were limited to fleeting glimpses of dark shapes vanishing into the thick riverine forests of the Kakombe Valley.6 The breakthrough, when it finally arrived, came in the form of a single, emboldened male named David Greybeard. It was David who first allowed Goodall to observe him stripping leaves from a twig to fish for termites in a mound—a seemingly simple act that shattered the "Man the Toolmaker" paradigm and forced a redefinition of humanity itself.7

To maintain this contact and to secure the photographic evidence required by her sponsors at the National Geographic Society, Goodall and her partner (and later husband), photographer Hugo van Lawick, made a fateful methodological decision. They established a system of artificial feeding, or "provisioning," designed to lure the chimpanzees into the camp clearing. This decision, pragmatic in its intent, would fundamentally alter the trajectory of the study.2 It transformed Gombe from a site of passive observation into a locus of intense interspecies interaction, initiating a cascade of unintended consequences that would challenge the ethics of field biology, devastating the study population through disease and violence, and ultimately forging the rigorous conservation protocols of the 21st century.9

This report provides an exhaustive analysis of the "Gombe Paradox"—the tension between the revolutionary insights gained through close contact and the catastrophic ecological and physiological costs of that contact. By synthesizing historical records, behavioral data, and modern endocrinological studies, we explore how the "Banana Club" feeding station acted as an ecological trap, rewriting the social dynamics of the Kasakela chimpanzees and serving as a vector for the tragedies of the 1966 polio epidemic and the 1974 Four-Year War.

2. The Methodology of Contact: Engineering the "Banana Club"

2.1 The Transition from Observation to Provisioning

In the early history of ethology, the concept of "habituation"—the process of accustoming wild animals to human presence until they ignore it—was poorly defined. The standard practice involved patience, but the pressures of funding and the need for visual documentation drove the Gombe team to accelerate the process. The initial, informal offering of bananas to David Greybeard quickly evolved into a systematic regime known as the "Banana Club".11

The rationale was simple: bananas are a high-calorie, easily digestible resource, far superior in sugar and starch content to the fibrous wild fruits and leaves that constitute the bulk of the chimpanzee diet.9 By providing a concentrated food source, the researchers could ensure that the chimpanzees would visit the camp daily, allowing for the detailed observation of social interactions, matrilineal relationships, and dominance displays that would otherwise occur in the obscured density of the forest canopy.

2.2 The Engineering of the Feeding Station

By 1963, the provisioning system had been institutionalized. The sheer intelligence and persistence of the chimpanzees necessitated a move from simple hand-feeding to a more robust, engineered solution. The chimpanzees, driven by the high value of the resource, would raid the tents and supply stores, creating chaos in the camp. To manage this, the research team constructed a permanent feeding station consisting of concrete boxes buried in the ground or secured to platforms.11

The mechanism of these boxes was designed to allow the researchers to control the distribution of food remotely, thereby attempting to mitigate the dominance hierarchies of the apes.

  • The Box Design: The boxes were heavy concrete or metal structures, roughly 60 cm long, capped on the ends, with access holes.

  • The Trigger Mechanism: The lids or access points were controlled by a series of underground wires connected to a control handle in the observation area. Researchers could pull a lever to open a specific box for a specific chimp, theoretically ensuring that low-ranking females or youngsters could get a share of the bananas without being displaced by dominant males.11

  • The Gravity Feed: Later iterations involved gravity-fed systems or hoppers that would dispense the bananas when triggered, minimizing the need for researchers to physically place food in the boxes while chimps were present.13

2.3 The Ecological Trap and Aggression

While the feeding station succeeded in its primary goal of aggregation, it created a profound ecological distortion. In their natural state, chimpanzees practice "fission-fusion" sociality. They forage in small, ever-changing parties (fission) to minimize feeding competition and only occasionally gather in large groups (fusion) when a massive fruit tree is in season.9 The feeding station artificially enforced a permanent "fusion" state.

The concentration of the entire community in a small geographic area created a pressure cooker of social tension. Richard Wrangham, a researcher at Gombe in the early 1970s, documented that rates of aggression were significantly higher at the feeding station than in the forest.9 The bananas represented a resource of such high value that the cost of aggression—risk of injury or energy expenditure—was outweighed by the caloric reward.

  • Competition: Dominant males utilized the station to assert status, displaying aggressively to monopolize the boxes.

  • Frustration: The mechanical nature of the boxes added a layer of frustration; if a lever failed or a researcher refused to open a box for a high-ranking male, the resulting "redirected aggression" was often taken out on subordinates or juveniles.9

This environment of heightened arousal and unnatural density laid the groundwork for the two major crises that would define the middle years of the Gombe study: the introduction of human pathogens and the outbreak of lethal intergroup violence.

3. The First Consequence: The Polio Epidemic of 1966

The most immediate and devastating consequence of the provisioning system was the breach of the epidemiological barrier. The genetic proximity of humans and chimpanzees renders the apes highly susceptible to human infectious diseases. However, unlike humans who have co-evolved with these pathogens in dense settlements for millennia, wild chimpanzees possess "naïve" immune systems with no historical exposure to viruses like measles, influenza, or poliomyelitis.14

3.1 The Virology of the Outbreak

In 1966, a tragedy unfolded at Gombe that would haunt Goodall and her team for decades. A paralytic disease erupted within the Kasakela community. The timing of the outbreak was not coincidental; it occurred approximately one month after a confirmed epidemic of poliomyelitis in the human population of the nearby Kigoma region.16

Poliomyelitis is caused by the Poliovirus, an enterovirus of the family Picornaviridae. It is highly contagious, transmitted primarily via the fecal-oral route, though oral-oral transmission is possible.17 In the context of the feeding station, where chimps were handling bananas prepared by humans, and where the ground was saturated with the feces of a congregating community, the transmission conditions were ideal. The virus attacks the motor neurons in the spinal cord, leading to flaccid paralysis.18

3.2 The Suffering of the Kasakela Community

The clinical presentation in the chimpanzees was identical to that in humans. The disease struck suddenly. Animals that were vibrant and agile one day were found dragging their limbs the next. Goodall’s accounts from this period are harrowing.

  • Mr. McGregor: Perhaps the most poignant case was that of Mr. McGregor, an older male. The virus paralyzed both his legs and the lower part of his trunk. Unable to walk, he resorted to dragging himself through the forest using only his arms. The physical trauma of this locomotion eventually caused him to dislocate one of his shoulders. Goodall described the horror of watching him attempt to groom himself or reach for food, his body utterly unresponsive. To end his profound suffering, the research team made the difficult decision to euthanize him.19

  • Other Casualties: In total, the epidemic affected at least 10 individuals. Six died or disappeared, presumed to have died in the forest where they could not be found. Survivors, such as the female Faben, were left with paralyzed limbs that permanently altered their social standing and ability to navigate the canopy.16

3.3 The Intervention: The Banana Vaccine

The outbreak precipitated an ethical crisis. The ethos of the field naturalist is typically one of non-interference—to observe nature "red in tooth and claw" without intervening. However, the realization that the disease was of human origin—likely introduced by the researchers or their staff—imposed a moral obligation to act.

Goodall contacted Louis Leakey in Nairobi, who arranged for an emergency shipment of the oral polio vaccine (OPV).22 The OPV, developed by Albert Sabin in the late 1950s, uses a live attenuated virus to induce immunity.17

  • The Delivery Method: The researchers faced the logistical challenge of vaccinating a wild, albeit habituated, population. The solution was the feeding station itself. The vaccine drops were injected into bananas.

  • The Outcome: This method allowed the team to vaccinate the surviving members of the Kasakela community and effectively halt the spread of the virus.22 It was a triumph of field veterinary medicine, but it underscored the dangerous irony of the project: the same mechanism (the banana) that likely facilitated the close contact and potential transmission was the only vehicle available for the cure.

3.4 The Pattern of Respiratory Epidemics

The polio outbreak was not an isolated event but the beginning of a pattern. As the Gombe study continued, the "contact zone" at the camp became a vector for respiratory pathogens.

  • 1968 Epidemic: Two years after the polio outbreak, a respiratory disease (likely influenza or bacterial pneumonia) swept through the community, coinciding with the disappearance of five chimpanzees.15

  • 1987 Pneumonia: A severe outbreak of pneumonia killed nine individuals, a demographic blow that took the community nearly 15 years to recover from.14

  • 1996 & 2000: Further "flu-like" epidemics claimed more lives.25

These events revealed that the "unintended consequence" of habituation was the creation of a bridge for zoonotic exchange. The chimpanzees, previously isolated by the forest, were now biologically connected to the global human virome.

4. The Second Consequence: The Four-Year War and the Provisioning Debate

If the polio epidemic revealed the biological vulnerability of the Gombe chimpanzees, the events of 1974 revealed their potential for organized violence. The "Four-Year War" (1974–1978) was a conflict between the Kasakela community and a splinter group known as the Kahama community. It resulted in the systematic extermination of the Kahama males, a sequence of events so brutal it challenged the very definition of "humanity" and "animality".26

4.1 The Fission of the Community

In the early years of the study, the Gombe chimpanzees were regarded as a single social unit. However, by the early 1970s, a social rift began to form. A subgroup of males, led by the brothers Hugh and Charlie, began to range almost exclusively in the southern portion of the territory. They were joined by several females and their offspring. By 1974, the separation was complete; the southern group (Kahama) no longer associated peacefully with the northern group (Kasakela).26

4.2 The Conflict

The violence began on January 7, 1974. A patrol of six Kasakela males ambushed a single Kahama male, Godi, who was feeding in a tree. The attack was coordinated and vicious. The Kasakela males pinned Godi to the ground while others beat and bit him. He was left to die of his injuries.27

Over the next four years, the Kasakela males conducted a campaign of what can only be described as "search and destroy" missions. They systematically isolated and killed the remaining Kahama males—Dé, Goliath, Charlie, Hugh, and Sniff. They also attacked and killed at least one female, Madam Bee. By 1978, the Kahama community had been annihilated, and the Kasakela chimpanzees annexed their territory.26

4.3 The "Provisioning Hypothesis"

The brutality of the war shocked the scientific community and the public. It contradicted the image of the chimpanzee as a peaceful vegetarian. In the aftermath, a controversial theory emerged: arguably, the war was not natural behavior, but a pathology caused by the feeding station.

In her 1991 book, The Egalitarians—Human and Chimpanzee, Margaret Power formulated the "Provisioning Hypothesis." She argued that the artificial concentration of food at the camp created intense competition and frustration. This "social stress" destabilized the community, causing it to fracture. The violence, she contended, was a result of the chimpanzees being forced into an unnatural proximity and then acting out the aggression generated by the feeding station battles.9

If Power was correct, the "Four-Year War" was an unintended consequence of Goodall’s methodology—a tragedy manufactured by human interference. This hypothesis cast a shadow over the validity of the Gombe data for decades. If the violence was an artifact of provisioning, then the "Demonic Male" hypothesis—which suggests a deep evolutionary root for human warfare—would be based on flawed evidence.28

4.4 Resolution: The Evidence from Non-Provisioned Sites

The resolution to this debate required data from control groups—chimpanzee communities that had never been provisioned. In the decades following the Gombe War, long-term studies were established at other sites, notably the Kibale National Park (Ngogo and Kanyawara communities) in Uganda and the Mahale Mountains in Tanzania (where provisioning was phased out).30

A landmark study published in Nature in 2014, led by Michael Wilson and including data from 18 chimpanzee communities, decisively refuted the Provisioning Hypothesis.28 The study analyzed 152 lethal attacks and found:

  • Natural Occurrence: Lethal intergroup aggression occurs in non-provisioned groups at rates similar to or higher than those observed at Gombe.

  • The Ngogo Case: The Ngogo community in Uganda, which has never been provisioned, exhibits extreme territorial aggression and has been observed effectively exterminating neighboring groups to expand their territory.28

  • Adaptive Strategy: The consensus is now that lethal aggression is an adaptive evolutionary strategy. By eliminating the males of a neighboring group, the victors gain access to more territory, food resources, and females. It is a strategy driven by the logic of reproductive success, not the frustration of a banana box.9

While the feeding station at Gombe certainly increased local aggression (fights over who got the next banana), it did not create the coalitional warfare that destroyed the Kahama community. The war was a grim but natural expression of chimpanzee sociopolitics.

5. Physiological Costs: Stress, Endocrinology, and Eco-Immunology

Beyond the visible crises of disease and war, the provisioning system exacted a silent physiological toll on the chimpanzees. Modern advances in field endocrinology and "eco-immunology" allow us to retrospectively understand the biological stress imposed by the "Banana Club."

5.1 The Physiology of Stress: Glucocorticoids

The body’s response to stress is mediated by the Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal (HPA) axis. When an animal perceives a threat (social aggression, competition), the HPA axis triggers the release of glucocorticoids, primarily cortisol. While cortisol is essential for mobilizing energy in acute emergencies (the "fight or flight" response), chronic elevation of cortisol is deleterious. It suppresses the immune system, inhibits reproduction, and impairs cognitive function.32

Researchers can measure these stress levels non-invasively by analyzing fecal glucocorticoid metabolites (FGCM). Studies on primates and other wildlife (such as elk and orangutans) exposed to human disturbances consistently show elevated FGCM levels.35

  • Feeding Competition and Cortisol: At the Gombe feeding station, the intense competition for bananas likely created a state of chronic HPA activation, particularly for subordinate individuals. Every visit to the station required navigating a gauntlet of dominant males and unpredictable box mechanisms.

  • The Lag Time: Research shows that fecal cortisol levels reflect the stress experienced 12 to 24 hours prior.36 This biological lag confirms that the social chaos of a feeding event would translate into a physiological "hangover" the following day, potentially affecting the animal's ability to forage naturally or fight off infection.

5.2 Eco-Immunology: The Double-Edged Sword of Calories

The field of eco-immunology explores how environmental factors shape immune function. The provisioning at Gombe presented a complex trade-off.

  • The Nutritional Boost: On one hand, the bananas provided a dense source of calories. Mounting an immune response is energetically expensive; therefore, well-fed animals should theoretically be better at resisting disease.38

  • The Pathogen Pressure: On the other hand, the increased "contact rate" at the feeding station overwhelmed this nutritional advantage. Mathematical models of provisioning suggest that even if food supplementation increases individual resistance (lowers susceptibility), the sheer density of the host population and the introduction of novel pathogens can drive the basic reproduction number (R_0) of a disease so high that it causes an epidemic regardless of the animals' health status.40

The "unintended consequence" here was that the chimpanzees were physically robust (well-fed) but immunologically besieged. The stress of social instability (driven by the station) likely acted as an immunosuppressant, making them even more vulnerable to the viruses introduced by the researchers.42

6. The Evolution of Ethics: From Contact to Quarantine

The accumulation of these tragedies—polio, pneumonia, and the distortions of the feeding station—forced a painful evolution in the ethics and protocols of field primatology. The "Gombe Methodology" of the 1960s, characterized by direct contact and provisioning, has been replaced by a rigorous set of exclusion protocols.

6.1 The End of the Banana Club

The heavy provisioning regime was scaled back significantly in 1968, shortly after the polio and respiratory outbreaks, and eventually halted entirely in 2000.31 Goodall acknowledged the necessity of this shift, stating, "Today, we would not encourage the chimpanzees to visit a banana-feeding station, as we know that they can catch our infectious diseases... So the approach I took then, which we would never do now, was right for its time".2 The scientific community accepted that the data gained from provisioning came at too high a price.

6.2 Modern IUCN Guidelines and "Neutral Habituation"

Today, the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Primate Specialist Group issues strict "Best Practice Guidelines" for great ape research and tourism. These guidelines are the direct intellectual descendants of the lessons learned at Gombe.44

  • Neutral Habituation: The gold standard is now "neutral habituation," where researchers habituate apes by patiently following them without offering food rewards. The goal is for the ape to view the human as a neutral element of the landscape—neither a threat nor a food source.44

  • Distance Rules: A minimum distance of 7 to 10 meters is mandatory to reduce the risk of aerosol transmission of respiratory viruses.46

  • Mask Mandates: The wearing of surgical masks is required for all researchers and tourists in close proximity to the apes.46

  • Quarantine: Researchers must undergo quarantine periods and health screenings (vaccination status) before entering the field to ensure they are not asymptomatic carriers of human pathogens.46

6.3 The Rise of Non-Invasive Technologies

The move away from physical proximity has spurred the development of remote sensing and molecular biology techniques that allow for "Deep Research" without deep contact.

  • Fecal Analysis: The collection of dung has revolutionized the field. From a single sample, researchers can now extract DNA for genetic profiling (replacing the need to visually identify lineage), assay hormones like cortisol and testosterone (to measure stress and reproduction), and screen for pathogens like SIVcpz (Simian Immunodeficiency Virus) and parasites.24

  • Geospatial Tech: GPS tracking and high-resolution satellite imagery allow scientists to monitor ranging patterns and habitat loss without physically tracking the animals every day, reducing the "observer effect" on their behavior.1

7. Broader Implications: The "Island" Dilemma and Community Conservation

The unintended consequences of Gombe were not confined to the interactions within the park. The very fame of the research, while generating global support for conservation, also highlighted the vulnerability of the Gombe ecosystem.

7.1 The Edge Effect

Gombe Stream National Park is incredibly small, covering only 35 square kilometers.25 In 1960, it was part of a larger, continuous forest belt. Today, due to the population explosion in the Kigoma region (driven by refugees and agricultural expansion), the park is an "island" of forest surrounded by human settlements and deforested land.25

This isolation creates a severe "edge effect." Chimpanzees, constrained by the lack of forest, frequently raid crops in neighboring villages. This brings them into conflict with farmers and domestic animals (dogs, goats), increasing the risk of transmission for diseases like rabies and distemper, and leading to retaliatory killings of apes.25

7.2 Tacare: A Holistic Solution

Recognizing that the survival of the Gombe chimpanzees was inextricably dynamic with the welfare of the surrounding human population, the Jane Goodall Institute launched the Tacare (Lake Tanganyika Catchment Reforestation and Education) program in 1994.49

This approach represented a paradigm shift in conservation. Instead of building higher fences to keep people out, Tacare focuses on community-led development: providing healthcare, clean water, and education to local villages. By improving the lives of the humans, the program reduces the pressure on the forest (less need for charcoal or slash-and-burn agriculture) and fosters a sense of stewardship. This holistic model is the ultimate answer to the "unintended consequences" of the early years—an acknowledgement that humans and chimpanzees are part of a single, shared ecosystem.49

8. Conclusion: The Legacy of the Paradox

The research conducted at Gombe Stream National Park stands as a monumental achievement in the history of science. It stripped away the arrogance of human uniqueness, revealing a species that makes tools, wages war, feels grief, and navigates complex political landscapes.

However, this knowledge was purchased at a cost. The early methodologies of the "Banana Club," while necessary to break the initial barrier of fear, introduced a wave of disturbance that rippled through the Kasakela community. The polio epidemic of 1966, the respiratory outbreaks, and the heightened aggression of the feeding station serve as somber reminders of the fragility of wild systems when touched by human hands.

Yet, it is through these very failures that the field of primatology matured. The tragedy of Mr. McGregor’s paralysis led directly to the development of the rigorous health protocols that protect great apes today. The horror of the Four-Year War forced a deeper, more uncomfortable reckoning with the evolutionary roots of violence. The "unintended consequences" of Gombe did not invalidate the research; rather, they refined it, transforming field biology from a practice of intrusion into a discipline of humble observation and holistic conservation. The legacy of Jane Goodall is not just the data she collected, but the wisdom the scientific community gained in learning how—and how not—to coexist with our closest living relatives.

Table 1: The Gombe Epidemiological Timeline


Year

Event

Vector/Cause

Impact

Source

1966

Polio Epidemic

Human-to-Chimp (Zoonotic)

6 dead/missing; permanent paralysis of survivors.

16

1968

Respiratory Outbreak

Viral (Influenza/Pneumonia)

5 dead/missing.

15

1987

Pneumonia Epidemic

Respiratory Virus

9 dead (severe demographic hit).

14

1996

"Flu-like" Epidemic

Respiratory Virus

11 dead.

25

2000

Flu Epidemic

Respiratory Virus

~30 ill.

21

Table 2: Evolution of Research Methodologies


Feature

1960s "Gombe Protocol"

2020s "IUCN Best Practice"

Habituation

Provisioning: Bananas, feeding boxes.9

Neutral: Passive following, no food rewards.44

Proximity

Direct Contact: Hand-feeding, touch allowed.

Exclusion: Min. 7-10 meters distance.46

Health

Reactive: Vaccination after outbreak.22

Preventative: Masks, quarantine, fecal monitoring.46

Data Collection

Visual: Notebooks, film.

Integrated: GPS, Genomics, Endocrinology.24

Table 3: The Provisioning Hypothesis vs. Adaptive Strategy


Theory

Proponent

Core Argument

Verdict

Provisioning Hypothesis

Margaret Power (1991)

Chimpanzee violence is an artifact of frustration and competition caused by artificial feeding stations.9

Refuted: Lethal aggression is observed in non-provisioned groups (e.g., Ngogo).28

Adaptive Strategy

Wrangham/Wilson (2014)

Lethal aggression is an evolved behavior to expand territory and access resources/mates.28

Accepted: Consistent with data from 18 long-term study sites across Africa.28

Works cited

  1. Gombe Stream Research Centre - Jane Goodall, accessed January 8, 2026, https://janegoodall.ca/what-we-do/africa-programs/gombe-stream-research-centre/

  2. 60 years at Gombe | The Explorers Club, accessed January 8, 2026, https://www.explorers.org/journals/60-years-at-gombe/

  3. timeline - Jane Goodall Institute USA, accessed January 8, 2026, https://janegoodall.org/our-story/timeline/

  4. Jane Goodall, the Famous Primatologist and Ethologist whose studies of chimpanzees in Africa led to the redefinition of mankind - ResearchGate, accessed January 8, 2026, https://www.researchgate.net/publication/396309528_Jane_Goodall_the_Famous_Primatologist_and_Ethologist_whose_studies_of_chimpanzees_in_Africa_led_to_the_redefinition_of_mankind

  5. Insights into human evolution from 60 years of research on chimpanzees at Gombe, accessed January 8, 2026, https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/evolutionary-human-sciences/article/insights-into-human-evolution-from-60-years-of-research-on-chimpanzees-at-gombe/CBC4C65C1F6678E1C5D98422C1DF9110

  6. Jane Goodall's original tale of chimpanzees still astonishes today | National Geographic, accessed January 8, 2026, https://www.nationalgeographic.com/magazine/article/jane-goodall-original-story-chimpanzees-still-astonishes

  7. Kasakela chimpanzee community - Wikipedia, accessed January 8, 2026, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kasakela_chimpanzee_community

  8. 50 Years of Chimpanzee Discoveries at Gombe - Smithsonian Magazine, accessed January 8, 2026, https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/50-years-of-chimpanzee-discoveries-at-gombe-31517394/

  9. Chimpanzee violence | monkey business, accessed January 8, 2026, https://blog.michael-lawrence-wilson.com/2014/09/19/chimpanzee-violence/

  10. Educating for Sustainability: Competencies & Practices for Transformative Action, accessed January 8, 2026, http://www.jsedimensions.org/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2011/03/FriskLarson2011.pdf

  11. Chimpanzees, War, and History - The Ted K Archive, accessed January 8, 2026, https://www.thetedkarchive.com/library/r-brian-ferguson-chimpanzees-war-and-history

  12. Meg Greene - Jane Goodall A Biography | PDF | Chimpanzee | Unrest - Scribd, accessed January 8, 2026, https://www.scribd.com/document/310911020/Meg-Greene-Jane-Goodall-a-Biography

  13. Enrichment and Occupational Devices for Orangutans and Chimpanzees, accessed January 8, 2026, https://awionline.org/content/enrichment-and-occupational-devices-orangutans-and-chimpanzees

  14. Causes of death in the Kasekela chimpanzees of Gombe National Park, Tanzania, accessed January 8, 2026, https://blog.michael-lawrence-wilson.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/01/17.-Williams-et-al-2008.pdf

  15. Fifty Years at Gombe | National Geographic, accessed January 8, 2026, https://www.nationalgeographic.com/magazine/article/being-jane-goodall

  16. Epidemiology of Poliomyelitis in the United States and Its Recognition as an Infectious Disease from the Mid-19th Century to the Early 20th Century - MDPI, accessed January 8, 2026, https://www.mdpi.com/2673-8392/5/3/125

  17. History of Polio: Key Milestones & Global Eradication, accessed January 8, 2026, https://polioeradication.org/about-polio/history-of-polio/

  18. Chapter 18: Poliomyelitis | Pink Book - CDC, accessed January 8, 2026, https://www.cdc.gov/pinkbook/hcp/table-of-contents/chapter-18-poliomyelitis.html

  19. In The Shadow of Man | PDF | Chimpanzee | Adolescence - Scribd, accessed January 8, 2026, https://www.scribd.com/document/953834590/In-the-Shadow-of-Man

  20. Dame Jane Goodall | Academy of Achievement, accessed January 8, 2026, https://achievement.org/achiever/jane-goodall/

  21. Using retrospective health data from the Gombe chimpanzee study to inform future monitoring efforts - PubMed, accessed January 8, 2026, https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16900499/

  22. Goodall, Jane (1934—) | Encyclopedia.com, accessed January 8, 2026, https://www.encyclopedia.com/women/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/goodall-jane-1934

  23. Compliance of Caregivers with polio vaccine Dosages and Timelines in Lagos State Nigeria - ScholarWorks, accessed January 8, 2026, https://scholarworks.waldenu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=5021&context=dissertations

  24. The Gombe Ecosystem Health Project: 16 Years of Program Evolution and Lessons Learned, accessed January 8, 2026, https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8727649/

  25. Why the Chimpanzees of Gombe National Park Are in Jeopardy - PRB.org, accessed January 8, 2026, https://www.prb.org/resources/why-the-chimpanzees-of-gombe-national-park-are-in-jeopardy/

  26. Gombe Chimpanzee War - Wikipedia, accessed January 8, 2026, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gombe_Chimpanzee_War

  27. A Brief History of the Gombe Chimpanzee War - Discover Magazine, accessed January 8, 2026, https://www.discovermagazine.com/a-brief-history-of-the-gombe-chimpanzee-war-42839

  28. Study finds lethal aggression is natural in chimpanzees - ASU News, accessed January 8, 2026, https://news.asu.edu/content/study-finds-lethal-aggression-natural-chimpanzees

  29. War for Peace Among Wild Chimpanzees - Behavioral Scientist, accessed January 8, 2026, https://behavioralscientist.org/war-for-peace-among-wild-chimpanzees/

  30. INTERGROUP RELATIONS IN CHIMPANZEES Michael L. Wilson Richard W. Wrangham, accessed January 8, 2026, https://blog.michael-lawrence-wilson.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/01/07.-Wilson-Wrangham-2003.pdf

  31. (PDF) Intergroup Relations in Chimpanzees - ResearchGate, accessed January 8, 2026, https://www.researchgate.net/publication/216460577_Intergroup_Relations_in_Chimpanzees

  32. Ape Conservation Physiology: Fecal Glucocorticoid Responses in Wild Pongo pygmaeus morio following Human Visitation | PLOS One - Research journals, accessed January 8, 2026, https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0033357

  33. Stress-Level Cortisol Treatment Impairs Inhibitory Control of Behavior in Monkeys - PMC, accessed January 8, 2026, https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6772868/

  34. Stress hormone levels in aging wild chimpanzees mirrors that of humans, accessed January 8, 2026, https://www.nia.nih.gov/news/stress-hormone-levels-aging-wild-chimpanzees-mirrors-humans

  35. Response of fecal cortisol to stress in captive chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) - PubMed, accessed January 8, 2026, https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9444323/

  36. Maternal Behavior and Physiological Stress Levels in Wild Chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii) - PMC - NIH, accessed January 8, 2026, https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4512756/

  37. Fecal Glucocorticoid Assays and the Physiological Stress Response in Elk - College of Environmental Science and Forestry - Experts at ESF, accessed January 8, 2026, https://experts.esf.edu/esploro/outputs/journalArticle/Fecal-Glucocorticoid-Assays-and-the-Physiological/99918321904826

  38. Food for contagion: synthesis and future directions for studying host–parasite responses to resource shifts in anthropogenic environments - Royal Society Publishing, accessed January 8, 2026, https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rstb.2017.0102

  39. Reviewing the effects of food provisioning on wildlife immunity - PMC - PubMed Central, accessed January 8, 2026, https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5882994/

  40. Wildlife Provisioning Selects for Higher Pathogen Virulence in Hosts with Incomplete Immunity | The American Naturalist - The University of Chicago Press: Journals, accessed January 8, 2026, https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/738726

  41. Too much of a good thing: resource provisioning alters infectious disease dynamics in wildlife - PMC - PubMed Central, accessed January 8, 2026, https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4126624/

  42. Urinary Cortisol, Aggression, Dominance and Competition in Wild, West African Male Chimpanzees - Frontiers, accessed January 8, 2026, https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/ecology-and-evolution/articles/10.3389/fevo.2019.00107/full

  43. Anthropogenic food provisioning and immune phenotype: Association among supplemental food, body condition, and immunological parameters in urban environments - NIH, accessed January 8, 2026, https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5838038/

  44. Best Practice Guidelines for the Re-introduction of Great Apes - IUCN SSC Conservation Translocation Specialist Group, accessed January 8, 2026, https://iucn-ctsg.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/02/Guidelines-for-the-Reintroduction-of-Great-Apes.pdf

  45. Best Practice Guidelines | Section on Great Apes, accessed January 8, 2026, https://www.iucngreatapes.org/best-practice-guidelines

  46. Future coexistence with great apes will require major changes to policy and practice, accessed January 8, 2026, https://kibaleecohealth.wisc.edu/pdf/P249.pdf

  47. Atypical experiences of captive chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) are associated with higher hair cortisol concentrations as adults - Royal Society Publishing, accessed January 8, 2026, https://royalsocietypublishing.org/rsos/article/4/12/170932/93143/Atypical-experiences-of-captive-chimpanzees-Pan

  48. Best Practice Guidelines for the Prevention and Mitigation of Conflict Between Humans and Great Apes - IUCN Portals, accessed January 8, 2026, https://portals.iucn.org/library/efiles/documents/ssc-op-037.pdf

  49. Research and Conservation in the Greater Gombe Ecosystem: Challenges and Opportunities - PMC - NIH, accessed January 8, 2026, https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7743041/

  50. About Jane - Jane Goodall Institute USA, accessed January 8, 2026, https://janegoodall.org/our-story/about-jane/

Comments

bottom of page