The Night Parrot of Aotearoa: How We Pulled the Kākāpō Back from the Brink

1. Introduction: The Evolutionary Anomaly of Aotearoa

The kākāpō (Strigops habroptilus) stands as one of the most singular avian entities in the global biological record. Endemic to Aotearoa New Zealand, it represents a biological divergence that traces back approximately 60 to 80 million years, separating from the Psittaciformes lineage shortly after the Zealandia landmass broke away from the supercontinent Gondwana.¹ This profound geographical isolation allowed the species to traverse a distinct evolutionary trajectory, resulting in a suite of morphological and behavioral traits that are unique among parrots and, in some cases, among all birds.

As the sole member of the genus Strigops and the subfamily Strigopini, the kākāpō is a "phylogenetic relic." In the absence of terrestrial mammalian predators, it evolved into a niche more commonly occupied by small grazing mammals in other ecosystems. It is the world's only flightless parrot, having traded the high metabolic cost of flight for a robust, heavy skeletal structure and massive energy storage capabilities.³ Males can weigh upwards of 2 to 4 kilograms, making them the heaviest parrots in existence.² This gigantism is accompanied by a nocturnal activity cycle—hence the name "kākāpō" (night parrot) in Te Reo Māori—and a cryptic, moss-green plumage designed for camouflage against the verdant floor of the podocarp forests.⁵

Critically, the kākāpō is the only parrot species known to utilize a lek breeding system.³ In this system, males do not defend resources or assist in child-rearing; instead, they congregate in specific arenas to engage in competitive acoustic displays to attract females. This behavior, combined with their infrequent breeding cycle triggered by the mast fruiting of specific gymnosperms, creates a complex and fragile reproductive ecology that has proven exceptionally vulnerable to anthropogenic change.⁷

Following the arrival of humans—first Polynesians and later Europeans—the introduction of mammalian predators such as rats (Rattus spp.), stoats (Mustela erminea), and feral cats (Felis catus) dismantled the evolutionary defenses of the kākāpō. Their primary defense mechanism, a "freeze" response relying on camouflage, was effective against visual avian predators like the Haast’s eagle (Hieraaetus moorei) but futile against olfactory-hunting mammals.³ By 1995, the global population had collapsed to a functional extinction level of just 51 individuals, necessitating one of the most intensive species recovery programs in the history of conservation biology.¹⁰

This report provides an exhaustive analysis of the status of the kākāpō as of late 2024 and early 2025. It synthesizes data regarding population demographics, the pioneering application of conservation genomics through the Kākāpō125+ project, the management of novel veterinary threats like aspergillosis and exudative cloacitis, and the recent, historic attempts to return the species to the mainland at Sanctuary Mountain Maungatautari.

2. Demographic Status and Population Ecology (2024–2025)

2.1 Current Population Dynamics

As of the transition between 2024 and 2025, the total kākāpō population is estimated between 236 and 248 individuals.⁵ This figure represents a monumental recovery from the nadir of 51 birds three decades prior, yet the species remains classified as "Threatened – Nationally Critical" by the New Zealand Department of Conservation (DOC).⁵

The population growth of the kākāpō is not linear but stepwise, driven by the irregular "mast" fruiting events of the rimu tree (Dacrydium cupressinum). The last significant reproductive pulse occurred in 2022, a major mast year that resulted in 57 fledged chicks, pushing the population to a temporary peak of 252 individuals.¹⁰ The subsequent years, 2023 and 2024, were non-breeding years, characterized by natural attrition. For instance, five adult deaths were recorded in 2022, and two deaths (one adult, one juvenile) occurred in the first half of 2023.¹²

The current demographic structure is considered "well balanced," with a viable ratio of breeding-age males to females and a distribution of ages ranging from recent fledglings to geriatric individuals estimated to be between 60 and 90 years old.¹² However, this recovery has introduced a new ecological constraint: density dependence. The population is confined to a handful of predator-free offshore islands—principally Whenua Hou (Codfish Island), Pukenui (Anchor Island), and Te Kākahu-o-Tamatea (Chalky Island)—which are now approaching their carrying capacity.¹⁰

Table 1: Comparative Population Metrics (1995–2025)

Metric	1995 (Nadir)	2019 (Boom Year)	2022 (Peak)	2024/2025 (Current)
Total Population	51	~211	252	~236–248
Breeding Females	20	~70+	~80+	83–84
Genetic Lineages	Mainland & Stewart Is.	Admixed	Admixed	High admixture
Primary Locations	Stewart Is./Translocation	Whenua Hou, Anchor	Whenua Hou, Anchor	+ Maungatautari (Trial)

2.2 The Rimu Obligation: A Phenological Straitjacket

The fundamental constraint on kākāpō recovery is their obligate dietary specialization during breeding. While kākāpō are generalist herbivores for much of the year—consuming leaves, stems, roots, and fruits of various species—successful reproduction is contingent on the availability of rimu fruit.¹³

Rimu trees exhibit "masting" behavior, a synchronized massive production of fruit that occurs only every two to four years.¹⁵ This fruit is uniquely rich in calcium and Vitamin D, nutrients essential for the development of the kākāpō's heavy skeleton.⁷ Female kākāpō, which raise offspring without male assistance, rely exclusively on this energy-dense resource to feed their chicks. In years without a rimu mast, breeding does not occur, or if it is attempted, chick mortality from starvation or metabolic bone disease is high.¹⁵

The physiological mechanism linking the bird to the tree is a subject of intense study. It is hypothesized that the birds possess a "hepatic gene memory" or sensitization mechanism. Exposure to specific phytochemicals in the rimu diet may sensitize egg yolk protein genes in the female liver to estrogens produced by developing ovarian follicles. Only when the dietary "signal" is strong enough—indicating a mast year—do the follicles develop to ovulation.⁷

Looking ahead, the 2026 season is projected to be a "bumper" year. Assessments of rimu fruit set in late 2025 indicate high availability, and with over 80 breeding-age females in prime condition, the recovery program is preparing for potentially the largest breeding season since records began in 1977.¹¹

3. Evolutionary Biology: The Lek Mating System

3.1 The Track-and-Bowl Systems

The kākāpō's reproductive strategy is defined by lek polygyny, a system unknown in any other psittacine species.⁶ During breeding seasons, males abandon their usual solitary home ranges and migrate to high-elevation ridges and hilltops. Here, they construct elaborate display courts known as "track-and-bowl" systems.²

These systems consist of one or more shallow depressions (bowls) excavated into the earth, connected by cleared pathways (tracks). The males act as meticulous gardeners, constantly trimming back vegetation to maintain the acoustic purity of their arena.² The bowl acts as a parabolic reflector, amplifying the male's calls.

3.2 Acoustic Competition and The "Boom"

The male display is an endurance test of acoustic signaling. Males inflate their thoracic air sacs to massive proportions, transforming their bodies into resonating chambers. They produce a low-frequency call known as a "boom," which resonates at frequencies below 100 Hertz.¹⁸ This sound is capable of traveling up to 5 kilometers in mountainous terrain, penetrating the dense forest canopy to attract females from distant home ranges.¹⁸

The booming display is interspersed with high-frequency metallic calls known as "chings," which help females pinpoint the male's exact location once they are in range.⁵ A male may boom for up to eight hours a night, every night, for three to four months—a caloric expenditure that requires immense energy reserves built up during the pre-breeding period.¹⁸

3.3 The Lek-Skew Paradox and Genetic Consequences

This system results in a high variance in male reproductive success, often referred to as reproductive skew. In a lek, a small number of "dominant" males often secure the vast majority of matings, while many subordinate males achieve zero reproductive success.¹ For example, historical data shows that a single male, "Blades," fathered 22 chicks, while many of his contemporaries fathered none.¹

While this system allows females to select for "good genes" (fitness markers represented by the stamina to display), it presents a severe challenge for conservation in a bottlenecked population. The genetic diversity of the non-breeding males is effectively lost from the gene pool, accelerating the rate of genetic drift. This "lek-skew" forces conservation managers to intervene, using artificial insemination to ensure that under-represented males also contribute to the next generation.¹

4. Conservation Genomics: The Kākāpō125+ Project

4.1 Sequencing the Entire Species

In response to the threats of inbreeding depression, the Kākāpō Recovery Programme launched the Kākāpō125+ project in 2015. This initiative aimed to sequence the high-quality genomes of every living kākāpō (125 adults at the time) and key deceased individuals.¹⁶ This represents one of the first instances where the entire extant population of a species has been sequenced, shifting management from pedigree-based assumptions to genomic precision.

4.2 The Tale of Two Lineages: Purging vs. Diversity

The genomic analysis revealed a critical dichotomy in the population's history. The modern population descends from two distinct groups: a large group found on Stewart Island/Rakiura and a single surviving male, "Richard Henry," discovered in Fiordland.¹

Genetic analysis showed that the Stewart Island population had been isolated for approximately 10,000 years. Paradoxically, despite high levels of inbreeding (low heterozygosity), these birds carried a relatively low "mutational load." It is hypothesized that the long period of isolation and small population size forced the population through a "purge," where natural selection efficiently removed deleterious (harmful) recessive alleles because they were frequently expressed in homozygous individuals.²⁰

In contrast, Richard Henry originated from the mainland population, which was historically much larger. Consequently, his genome carried higher diversity but also a higher load of deleterious mutations that had been masked in the heterozygous state. The "genetic rescue" strategy of breeding Richard Henry with Stewart Island females therefore carried a double-edged sword: it introduced vital genetic variation (increasing evolutionary potential) but also re-introduced deleterious mutations that had been purged from the island line.²⁰

4.3 Genomic Management Applications

The data from Kākāpō125+ is now operationalized in daily management ¹⁶:

1. Molecular Studbook: Mating pairs are evaluated not just on familial relationships but on "genomic relatedness matrices" (GRM) to minimize the expression of recessive defects.²²

2. Disease Risk Stratification: Researchers are identifying genetic markers associated with susceptibility to aspergillosis and cloacitis, allowing highly susceptible birds to be prioritized for preventative care or moved to lower-risk habitats.¹⁶

3. Fertility Management: Genomic data helps disentangle whether infertility is driven by male sperm quality issues or female-driven early embryo death, guiding the use of artificial insemination.¹⁵

5. Veterinary Medicine and Disease Ecology

As the population density on predator-free islands increases, the kākāpō are increasingly vulnerable to density-dependent infectious diseases. The veterinary management of the species has evolved into a high-tech, rapid-response operation.

5.1 The 2019 Aspergillosis Outbreak

The 2019 breeding season, while numerically successful, was marred by a catastrophic outbreak of aspergillosis, a fungal respiratory disease caused by Aspergillus fumigatus. This outbreak affected 21 birds and killed 9, a mortality event that significantly dampened the success of the breeding season.²⁴

Genomic sequencing of the fungal isolates from the infected birds provided a groundbreaking, albeit worrying, insight. The outbreak was driven by a single genetic strain of A. fumigatus. In typical environmental settings, Aspergillus is genetically diverse. The clonality of this outbreak suggested a "point source" of contamination or a highly specific virulent strain that was amplified within the population.²⁴

Furthermore, the strain was found in the environment on both Whenua Hou and Anchor Island, yet the disease outbreak was concentrated only on Whenua Hou. This implies that the presence of the pathogen is "necessary but not sufficient" for disease; other factors, such as high nest density, spore accumulation in dry nest bowls, or stress from intensive management, likely lowered the birds' immunity.²⁵

The response required a massive logistical effort. Birds were airlifted to the Dunedin Wildlife Hospital and Auckland Zoo, where they underwent months of computed tomography (CT) scans and nebulized antifungal treatments.²⁷ This event highlighted the fragility of the population; a single pathogen could potentially undo decades of recovery.

5.2 The Enigma of Exudative Cloacitis

A chronic issue facing the population is "exudative cloacitis," colloquially known as "crusty bum." This condition manifests as inflammation, lesions, and discharge around the cloaca.²⁹ It is painful and can prevent birds from breeding.

Despite extensive research using metatranscriptomics (sequencing all RNA in a sample to find viruses), the etiology remains elusive. Studies conducted in 2024 and 2025 failed to identify a definitive viral or bacterial causative agent, leading researchers to investigate complex interactions between the gut microbiome, immune system, and potential environmental irritants.²⁹

Current treatment relies on antibiotics to manage secondary infections. A major concern has been the development of antibiotic resistance (AMR) due to the frequent use of drugs like doxycycline. However, a 2025 study led by the University of Auckland provided relief: genomic analysis of the gut microbiome of treated kākāpō (including a male named "Joe") showed no significant accumulation of antibiotic resistance genes. While the E. coli AcrAB-TolC efflux pump (a mechanism for drug resistance) was detected, it was at levels too low to be of clinical concern.²⁹

6. Technological Innovations: The "Techno-Parrot"

The Kākāpō Recovery Programme is arguably the most technology-intensive conservation project on Earth. Lacking the ability to rely on natural processes due to the species' precarious status, rangers employ a suite of "Smart" technologies to monitor and manipulate every aspect of the bird's life.

6.1 Smart Eggs and 3D Printing

Because female kākāpō are often clumsy or inexperienced, eggs are frequently removed from nests to be artificially incubated. They are replaced with "dummy eggs" to keep the female brooding. In the past, simple plaster eggs were used. However, these were silent and cold, failing to provide the tactile and auditory feedback a mother expects from a developing chick.

In 2019, the program introduced "Smart Eggs." Developed in collaboration with Texas A&M University and using 3D printing technology, these eggs are exact replicas of kākāpō eggs in weight and texture.³² Crucially, they contain internal electronics that play recorded sounds of a chick's heartbeat and hatching noises. This audio stimulation prepares the mother hormonally for the return of the real chick. If the mother does not hear these cues, she may fail to produce the necessary crop milk or reject the chick upon its return. Future iterations aim to include internal heating and movement mechanisms to further mimic a live embryo.³⁴

6.2 The Internet of Wild Things

Every kākāpō is fitted with a backpack-style radio transmitter. These have evolved from simple "beep" trackers to sophisticated data loggers equipped with accelerometers and GPS.³⁴

These "Smart Transmitters" can distinguish between walking, feeding, and mating. The accelerometer data is processed by onboard algorithms to detect the specific rhythmic movements of copulation. When a mating event is detected, the transmitter sends a packet of data to a network of receivers across the island, which relays it via satellite to the rangers' headquarters. This allows the team to know exactly when a female has mated, with whom, and for how long, without having to disturb the birds visually.³⁵ This "Internet of Things" (IoT) approach allows for precise management of the breeding timeline and genetic matching.

6.3 Artificial Insemination and Drone Logistics

To combat the "lek skew" and ensure genetic representation of non-dominant males, Artificial Insemination (AI) is a standard tool. The process involves capturing a male, inducing ejaculation via abdominal massage or electrical stimulation, and assessing sperm quality immediately.³⁶

The logistics of moving sperm from a male on one side of a rugged island to a receptive female on the other—within the short window of sperm viability—are daunting. The program has successfully trialed the use of drones to transport seminal samples across the canopy, significantly reducing transit time compared to hiking rangers.³⁴

7. Translocation and Range Expansion: Beyond the Islands

7.1 The Carrying Capacity Crisis

The success of the recovery program has birthed a new crisis: a lack of real estate. The primary islands, Whenua Hou (1,396 ha) and Pukenui (1,140 ha), are nearing their ecological carrying capacity.¹⁴ Overcrowding leads to increased stress, aggressive interactions, and potentially higher disease transmission rates.

7.2 The Sanctuary Mountain Maungatautari Trial (2023–2025)

In a historic pivot, the recovery group looked to the "mainland island" model. Sanctuary Mountain Maungatautari (SMM) is a 3,400-hectare forest in the Waikato region, surrounded by a 47-kilometer pest-proof fence.¹⁰ In 2023, a cohort of male kākāpō (including birds named Elwin, Kanawera, Manawanui, and Bunker) was translocated to SMM. This marked the first time kākāpō had lived on the mainland in decades.³⁹

The trial was designed to test whether the fence could contain the flightless but agile climbers. The results were mixed. Kākāpō proved to be escape artists. A bird named Tautahi used a downed tree to vault the fence and was found exploring neighboring farmland.³⁸ Another, Motupōhue, escaped twice, suggesting a behavioral predisposition to roam. These escapes necessitated a reduction in the trial population from ten to seven birds in late 2024 to manage the monitoring workload.⁴⁰

Despite the escapes, there were significant biological successes. In the summer of 2024/2025, males Taeatanga and Tautahi began "booming" at Maungatautari.⁴¹ This is a critical milestone; booming requires excellent physical condition and suggests that the birds perceive the mainland habitat as suitable for breeding, even in the absence of females.

7.3 The Vision of Predator Free Rakiura

The ultimate goal remains the restoration of kākāpō to large, unfenced landscapes. The "Predator Free Rakiura" project is the flagship of this ambition. Rakiura (Stewart Island) is 174,600 hectares—large enough to support thousands of kākāpō.⁴²

The project aims to eradicate rats, possums, feral cats, and hedgehogs from the inhabited island. This involves complex social and logistical challenges, including the use of aerial toxins (1080) and community-maintained trapping networks. Trials and consultation are underway as of 2025, with the hope that a predator-free Rakiura could eventually house the bulk of the species, removing the need for intensive individual management.⁴²

8. Socio-Cultural Context and Mana Whenua Partnership

8.1 Ngāi Tahu and the Mauri of the Species

The recovery of the kākāpō is inextricably linked to the rangatiratanga (sovereignty/chieftainship) of Ngāi Tahu, the Māori iwi of the southern South Island. The kākāpō is a taonga (treasure) species, a status recognized in the Ngāi Tahu Claims Settlement Act 1998.⁴⁴

This is not a passive relationship. Ngāi Tahu representatives, such as Tāne Davis, are embedded in the recovery group's decision-making structure. They guide policy on everything from genetic management to translocations.¹⁰ The translocation to Maungatautari was facilitated by a whāngai (fostering) agreement, where Ngāi Tahu formally entrusted the care of the birds to the Waikato iwi (Ngāti Korokī Kahukura, Raukawa, Ngāti Hauā, and Waikato-Tainui), reinforcing tribal connections through conservation.⁴¹

8.2 Social License and "Sirocco"

The intensive management of kākāpō requires significant public funds and "social license," particularly regarding the use of toxins for predator control. To maintain public engagement, the program utilizes "Sirocco," a hand-reared male who became imprinted on humans.

Sirocco achieved global fame following a viral incident where he attempted to mate with the head of a zoologist, Mark Carwardine, during a BBC documentary filming with Stephen Fry.⁹ Rather than treating this as a mishap, DOC appointed Sirocco as the official "Spokesbird for Conservation." He travels to secure locations to allow the public to encounter a kākāpō—an experience otherwise impossible due to the strict quarantine of the breeding islands.³⁵ This advocacy is crucial for maintaining the political will to fund the expensive recovery efforts.

9. Future Outlook: Climate Change and Resilience

The future of the kākāpō is clouded by the uncertainty of climate change. The masting of rimu trees is driven by temperature differentials between summers—specifically, a warm summer following a cold one triggers the masting cue.⁷

Climate models suggest that as New Zealand's climate warms and becomes more variable, masting events might become more frequent. While initially seeming beneficial, "mega-masts" (where beech and rimu seed simultaneously) also trigger explosions in predator populations (rats and mice) in non-managed areas.⁴⁶ For kākāpō on predator-free islands, more frequent masting could accelerate population growth. However, if the climate becomes too stable or warm, the temperature difference cue might be lost, potentially disrupting the breeding cycle entirely.⁴⁷

10. Conclusion

The status of the kākāpō in 2025 is a paradox of fragility and success. The population has quadrupled from its lowest point, fueled by cutting-edge genomics, 3D-printed surrogates, and the dedication of rangers and iwi partners. The forecast for a record-breaking 2026 breeding season offers hope for another leap in numbers.

However, the species remains in a state of "conservation dependence." It is land-locked by the carrying capacity of small islands and besieged by the genetic ghosts of its bottlenecked history. The Maungatautari trials have shown that the path back to the mainland is fraught with challenges, yet the "booming" echoing in the Waikato for the first time in generations serves as a powerful symbol of resilience. The survival of the kākāpō is no longer a question of if they can be saved, but how they can be transitioned from high-dependency patients to wild, self-sustaining inhabitants of a predator-free Aotearoa.

Table 2: Genetic and Veterinary Management Summary

Domain	Key Finding/Action	Impact
Genomics	Low Mutational Load in Island Lineage	Supports theory that inbreeding purged deleterious alleles; informs cross-breeding risks with mainland lineage.
Microbiome	Low Antibiotic Resistance	Confirms safety of current antibiotic protocols for cloacitis; E. coli AcrAB-TolC pump detected but at low levels.
Pathology	Single Strain Aspergillosis	2019 outbreak driven by clonal A. fumigatus; suggests environmental accumulation or point-source rather than general fungal diversity.
Technology	Smart Eggs (Texas A&M)	3D printed eggs with heartbeat audio ensure females maintain broodiness/hormonal sync with chicks.
Reproduction	Sperm Rescue & AI	Use of drones for sperm transport; AI increased second-clutch fertility from ~29% to ~70%.

Works cited

1. Genomic signatures of inbreeding in a critically endangered parrot, the kākāpō | G3 Genes - Oxford Academic, accessed January 15, 2026, https://academic.oup.com/g3journal/article/11/11/jkab307/6360462

2. Breeding biology of kakapo (Strigops habroptilus) on offshore island sanctuaries, 1990-2002 - Birds New Zealand, accessed January 15, 2026, https://www.birdsnz.org.nz/wp-content/uploads/2021/12/Notornis_53_1_27.pdf

3. Kākāpō - Wikipedia, accessed January 15, 2026, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C4%81k%C4%81p%C5%8D

4. Supplementary feeding kākāpō - Harrison's HPC pellets, accessed January 15, 2026, https://www.harrisonsbirdfoods.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/DOC-Kakapo-2025_Sup-Feeding-overview-1.pdf

5. Kākāpō: New Zealand native land birds - Department of Conservation, accessed January 15, 2026, https://www.doc.govt.nz/nature/native-animals/birds/birds-a-z/kakapo/

6. Kākāpō behaviour - Department of Conservation, accessed January 15, 2026, https://www.doc.govt.nz/nature/native-animals/birds/birds-a-z/kakapo/behaviour/

7. VIEWPOINT. An hypothesis to explain the linkage between kakapo (Strigops habroptilus) breeding and the mast fruiting of their food trees | Wildlife Research - CSIRO Publishing, accessed January 15, 2026, https://www.publish.csiro.au/wr/wr07148

8. Kākāpō breeding season 2026 - Conservation blog, accessed January 15, 2026, https://blog.doc.govt.nz/2025/06/27/kakapo-breeding-season-2026/

9. Creature Feature: Kākāpō - Predator Free Rakiura, accessed January 15, 2026, https://www.predatorfreerakiura.org.nz/about-us/stories/creature-feature-kakapo/

10. Kākāpō Recovery Programme | Meridian Energy, accessed January 15, 2026, https://www.meridianenergy.co.nz/community-support/kakapo-recovery-programme

11. Bumper breeding season for kākāpō on the cards - University of Auckland, accessed January 15, 2026, https://www.auckland.ac.nz/en/news/2025/12/03/bumper-breeding-season-for-kakapo-on-the-cards.html

12. kakapo-population-2022-2023.knit - Department of Conservation, accessed January 15, 2026, https://www.doc.govt.nz/globalassets/system/ar-reporting/reporting-ar-2022-23-1/kakapo-population-2022-2023.html

13. Kākāpō breeding season 2026 - Predator Free Rakiura, accessed January 15, 2026, https://www.predatorfreerakiura.org.nz/about-us/stories/kakapo-breeding-season-2026/

14. Kākāpō habitat and islands - Department of Conservation, accessed January 15, 2026, https://www.doc.govt.nz/nature/native-animals/birds/birds-a-z/kakapo/habitat-and-islands/

15. Hidden impacts of conservation management on fertility of the critically endangered kākāpō, accessed January 15, 2026, https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9901309/

16. Kākāpō125+ gene sequencing: Kākāpō Recovery - Department of Conservation, accessed January 15, 2026, https://www.doc.govt.nz/our-work/kakapo-recovery/what-we-do/research-for-the-future/kakapo125-gene-sequencing/

17. Kākāpō breeding season takes flight after four-year lay-off - 1News, accessed January 15, 2026, https://www.1news.co.nz/2026/01/06/kakapo-breeding-season-takes-flight-after-four-year-lay-off/

18. Can Technology Help Save The Kākāpō, The World's Heaviest And Only Flightless Parrot, From Extinction? - DOGO News, accessed January 15, 2026, https://www.dogonews.com/2020/1/16/can-technology-help-save-the-kakapo-the-worlds-heaviest-and-only-flightless-parrot-from-extinction/page/11

19. Full Mitogenomes in the Critically Endangered Kākāpō Reveal Major Post-Glacial and Anthropogenic Effects on Neutral Genetic Diversity - PubMed Central, accessed January 15, 2026, https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5924562/

20. Population genomics of the critically endangered k¯ak¯ap¯o - Diva-portal.org, accessed January 15, 2026, https://www.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:1622230/FULLTEXT01.pdf

21. After 10000 years of inbreeding, kākāpō are in surprisingly good genetic health - University of Otago, accessed January 15, 2026, https://www.otago.ac.nz/news/newsroom/after-10-000-years-of-inbreeding-kakapo-are-in-surprisingly-good-genetic-health

22. Genomic signatures of inbreeding in a critically endangered parrot, the kākāpō - PMC - NIH, accessed January 15, 2026, https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8527487/

23. Genomics for the conservation management of kea (Nestor notabilis) - OUR Archive (Otago University Research Archive), accessed January 15, 2026, https://ourarchive.otago.ac.nz/view/pdfCoverPage?instCode=64OTAGO_INST&filePid=13397327730001891&download=true

24. A single fungal strain was the unexpected cause of a mass aspergillosis outbreak in the world's largest and only flightless parrot - University of Birmingham's Research Portal, accessed January 15, 2026, https://research.birmingham.ac.uk/en/publications/a-single-fungal-strain-was-the-unexpected-cause-of-a-mass-aspergi/

25. A single fungal strain was the unexpected cause of a mass aspergillosis outbreak in the world's largest and only flightless parrot - NIH, accessed January 15, 2026, https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9668684/

26. (PDF) A single fungal strain was the unexpected cause of a mass aspergillosis outbreak in the world's largest and only flightless parrot - ResearchGate, accessed January 15, 2026, https://www.researchgate.net/publication/365041057_A_single_fungal_strain_was_the_unexpected_cause_of_a_mass_aspergillosis_outbreak_in_the_world's_largest_and_only_flightless_parrot

27. Kakapo and hospital booming | Otago Daily Times Online News, accessed January 15, 2026, https://www.odt.co.nz/news/dunedin/kakapo-and-hospital-booming

28. Fast-Acting Kākāpō Scientists Curb Fungal Disease That Killed Seven Birds | Audubon, accessed January 15, 2026, https://www.audubon.org/news/fast-acting-kakapo-scientists-curb-fungal-disease-killed-seven-birds

29. Influence of developmental stage on the antibiotic resistome and virome of the critically endangered kākāpō (Strigops habroptilus) - PMC - NIH, accessed January 15, 2026, https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC12582932/

30. Elusive aetiology of exudative cloacitis in the critically endangered kākāpō | Request PDF, accessed January 15, 2026, https://www.researchgate.net/publication/386197453_Elusive_aetiology_of_exudative_cloacitis_in_the_critically_endangered_kakapo

31. Amazing kākāpō gets small dose of good news - University of Auckland, accessed January 15, 2026, https://www.auckland.ac.nz/en/news/2025/10/22/good-news-for-aotearoa-s-amazing-kkp.html

32. How 3D Printed Smart Eggs are Saving the Kakapo - Island Conservation, accessed January 15, 2026, https://www.islandconservation.org/kakapo-3d-printed-smart-eggs-saving-species/

33. High-tech 'smart egg' could help save condors | Oregon Zoo, accessed January 15, 2026, https://www.oregonzoo.org/news/high-tech-smart-egg-could-help-save-condors

34. Kākāpō Recovery technology - Department of Conservation, accessed January 15, 2026, https://www.doc.govt.nz/our-work/kakapo-recovery/what-we-do/technology/

35. Smart ideas that are saving a species - Eyes On New Zealand, accessed January 15, 2026, https://www.eyesonnewzealand.com/stories/smart-ideas-that-are-saving-a-species

36. Semen collection, semen analysis and artificial insemination in the kākāpō (Strigops habroptilus) to support its conservation - University of Otago, accessed January 15, 2026, https://ourarchive.otago.ac.nz/esploro/outputs/journalArticle/Semen-collection-semen-analysis-and-artificial/9926742469801891?institution=64OTAGO_INST

37. Semen collection, semen analysis and artificial insemination in the kākāpō (Strigops habroptilus) to support its conservation - PMC - NIH, accessed January 15, 2026, https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC12064040/

38. New insights gained from kakapo translocation - Sanctuary Mountain Maungatautari, accessed January 15, 2026, https://www.sanctuarymountain.co.nz/about-us/news/post/new-insights-gained-from-kakapo-translocation

39. Six more kākāpō moved to Sanctuary Mountain Maungatautari - Department of Conservation, accessed January 15, 2026, https://www.doc.govt.nz/news/media-releases/2023-media-releases/six-more-kakapo-moved-to-sanctuary-mountain-maungatautari/

40. Kakapo Relocation to Reduce Monitoring Load - Sanctuary Mountain Maungatautari, accessed January 15, 2026, https://www.sanctuarymountain.co.nz/about-us/news/post/kakapo-relocated-to-reduce-monitoring-load

41. A booming good summer for male kākāpō on the North Island mainland - Department of Conservation, accessed January 15, 2026, https://www.doc.govt.nz/news/media-releases/2025-media-releases/a-booming-good-summer-for-male-kakapo-on-the-north-island-mainland/

42. Kākāpō comeback: will Predator Free Rakiura restore a lost wilderness?, accessed January 15, 2026, https://predatorfreenz.org/research/islands-sanctuaries-projects/kakapo-predator-free-rakiura-restoring-lost-wilderness/

43. Kākāpō breeding season raises stakes for Predator Free Rakiura, accessed January 15, 2026, https://www.predatorfreerakiura.org.nz/about-us/stories/kakapo-breeding-season-raises-stakes-for-predator-free-rakiura/

44. Kākāpō Recovery partners and supporters - Department of Conservation, accessed January 15, 2026, https://www.doc.govt.nz/our-work/kakapo-recovery/meet-the-people/partners-and-supporters/

45. Māori: Kākāpō Recovery - Department of Conservation, accessed January 15, 2026, https://www.doc.govt.nz/our-work/kakapo-recovery/meet-the-people/maori/

46. Beech mega-masts and predator plagues – expert Q&A | UC - University of Canterbury, accessed January 15, 2026, https://www.canterbury.ac.nz/news-and-events/news/2019/beech-mega-masts-and-predator-plagues-expert-qa

47. Global change explains reduced seeding in a widespread New Zealand tree: indigenous Tūhoe knowledge informs mechanistic analysis - Frontiers, accessed January 15, 2026, https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/forests-and-global-change/articles/10.3389/ffgc.2023.1172326/full