A Lifetime of Service: Mark Kelly’s Contributions to Aerospace Engineering, Space Exploration, and Public Policy

Introduction

The career of Senator Mark Edward Kelly represents a singular convergence of operational excellence, scientific inquiry, and legislative statecraft. It is a trajectory that traces a line from the high-stress environment of naval aviation combat to the precise orbital mechanics of the Space Shuttle program, and finally to the deliberative chambers of the United States Senate. Unlike many of his contemporaries in public service, whose backgrounds often lie in law or political science, Kelly’s professional formation is rooted deeply in the physical sciences—specifically marine engineering and aeronautical engineering. This technical foundation has imbued his approach to governance with a distinct empiricism, characterized by a reliance on data, a rigorous assessment of risk, and a systematic approach to complex problem-solving.¹

This deep-dive research report seeks to deconstruct the phases of Kelly’s career, analyzing not merely the timeline of events but the scientific and operational substance of his contributions. We examine the specific aerodynamic challenges of his work as a test pilot; the logistical and physical complexities of his four space shuttle missions, including the assembly of the International Space Station (ISS) and the deployment of the Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer (AMS-02); the genomic insights derived from his participation in the NASA Twins Study; and the application of this technocratic worldview to federal policy, particularly in the realms of semiconductor manufacturing, renewable energy, and artificial intelligence.

Through this analysis, a clear theme emerges: Kelly operates as a "pragmatic systems engineer" within the political sphere. His legislative initiatives, such as the CHIPS and Science Act and the La Paz County Solar Energy and Job Creation Act, are not ideological abstractions but rather structural interventions designed to optimize the nation’s industrial and energy infrastructure much in the way a flight control system optimizes an aircraft’s stability.³ This report provides an exhaustive, narrative account of this journey, supported by specific scientific details and legislative analysis.

Part I: Foundations in Engineering and Naval Aviation

To understand Mark Kelly’s contributions to science and policy, one must first understand the educational and operational crucible in which his mindset was formed. His early career was defined by the rigorous study of propulsion, fluid dynamics, and the operation of heavy machinery in hostile environments.

1.1 The Merchant Marine Academy: Marine Engineering and Nautical Science

Kelly’s academic journey began at the United States Merchant Marine Academy (USMMA), where he graduated in 1986 with highest honors.⁵ He earned a Bachelor of Science degree in Marine Engineering and Nautical Science, a dual discipline that is unique among federal service academies.¹

Curriculum and Technical focus:

The study of marine engineering involves a deep engagement with thermodynamics, fluid mechanics, and electrical systems. It requires an understanding of how to maintain propulsion and life-support systems in the isolated environment of a ship at sea—a direct analog to the life-support constraints of a spacecraft. The "Nautical Science" component of his degree focused on navigation, orbital mechanics (celestial navigation), and the physics of moving large vessels through fluid mediums. This education provided Kelly with a fundamental understanding of the interaction between human-built systems and the natural forces of wind, wave, and gravity.1

1.2 The Naval Postgraduate School: Advanced Aeronautical Engineering

Following his commissioning into the U.S. Navy, Kelly pursued advanced technical education at the U.S. Naval Postgraduate School (NPS), earning a Master of Science degree in Aeronautical Engineering in 1994.¹

Thesis and Research:

At NPS, Kelly’s focus shifted from the hydrodynamics of ships to the aerodynamics of aircraft. Aeronautical engineering at this level involves the study of compressible flow, stability derivatives, and aeroelasticity. While the specific title of his thesis is not detailed in the snippets, the curriculum for an aeronautical engineering master's typically involves rigorous mathematical modeling of flight dynamics. This period was crucial in transitioning Kelly from an operator of systems to an analyst of systems, capable of understanding the mathematical equations governing lift, drag, and thrust that keep a pilot alive in combat.6

1.3 The U.S. Naval Test Pilot School: Expanding the Envelope

Perhaps the most significant phase of his technical training occurred at the U.S. Naval Test Pilot School (USNTPS), where he attended from June 1993 to June 1994.⁶ The USNTPS is one of the world's premier aviation institutions, designed to train pilots to evaluate new aircraft and weapons systems.

Technical Instruction:

As a student and later as an instructor at the school, Kelly specialized in several critical areas of flight dynamics:

• Transonic Flying Qualities: This involves the behavior of aircraft as they transition from subsonic to supersonic speeds (Mach 0.8 to Mach 1.2). In this regime, shock waves begin to form on the wings, causing dramatic shifts in the center of pressure and potentially leading to instability (Mach tuck). Kelly taught pilots how to manage these dangerous aerodynamic shifts.⁶

• Departure and Spin Testing: This is one of the most hazardous forms of flight testing. It involves intentionally forcing an aircraft out of controlled flight (stalling) and entering a spin to determine if and how it can be recovered. This requires an intimate knowledge of the aircraft's inertial coupling and control authority.⁶

• Weapons Systems Testing: This involves evaluating how the release of ordnance affects the aircraft's center of gravity and aerodynamic profile, as well as the integration of radar and targeting computers.⁶

1.4 Combat Operations: Operation Desert Storm

Kelly’s theoretical knowledge was applied in the kinetic environment of the Persian Gulf War. He was assigned to Attack Squadron 115 (VA-115) aboard the aircraft carrier USS Midway.¹

The Platform: A-6E Intruder:

Kelly flew the Grumman A-6E Intruder, a twin-engine, mid-wing attack aircraft designed for all-weather, day-or-night strike missions. The A-6E was a sophisticated platform for its time, equipped with the TRAM (Target Recognition and Attack Multi-sensor) system, which integrated a FLIR (Forward Looking Infrared) sensor and a laser designator. This allowed the crew to identify and strike targets with laser-guided munitions in total darkness.6

Operational Profile:

During Operation Desert Storm, Kelly flew 39 combat missions.1

• Mission Objectives: His squadron was tasked with destroying Iraqi military infrastructure, including naval assets. Snippets confirm Kelly was involved in destroying Iraqi military targets, including two ships.⁶

• Close Air Support (CAS): He provided CAS for coalition ground forces, a mission type that requires extreme precision and communication to avoid friendly fire incidents. This involved loitering near the front lines and delivering ordnance on coordinates provided by Forward Air Controllers.⁶

• Carrier Operations: Kelly accumulated over 375 carrier landings (traps) throughout his career.¹ Landing a 30,000-pound aircraft on a pitching deck at night is often described as a "controlled crash." It requires the pilot to maintain a precise angle of attack, managing the aircraft's energy state to catch one of four arresting wires.

Decorations:

For his service, Kelly was awarded two Distinguished Flying Crosses (DFC), the Legion of Merit, and multiple Air Medals.1 The DFC is a high honor, awarded for "heroism or extraordinary achievement while participating in an aerial flight," signifying that Kelly performed duties that went significantly above the standard expectations of a combat pilot.8

Table 1: Military Service and Decorations Overview

Category	Detail
Branch	United States Navy
Rank	Captain (Ret.)
Education	B.S. Marine Engineering (USMMA), M.S. Aeronautical Engineering (NPS)
Key Training	U.S. Naval Test Pilot School (Student & Instructor)
Conflict	Operation Desert Storm (Gulf War)
Combat Stats	39 Combat Missions
Flight Stats	5,000+ flight hours, 50+ aircraft types, 375+ carrier landings
Major Awards	Defense Superior Service Medal (2), Legion of Merit, Distinguished Flying Cross (2), Air Medal (4)

Part II: The NASA Years – Logistics, Construction, and Repair

In 1996, Mark Kelly was selected as a NASA astronaut candidate in Group 16, the largest class in NASA history, famously known as "The Sardines".¹ His selection placed him alongside his identical twin brother, Scott Kelly, creating a unique biological pairing that would eventually be exploited for ground-breaking genomic research.⁶ Mark Kelly’s astronaut career spanned the mature phase of the Space Shuttle Program, focusing heavily on the construction and logistical sustainment of the International Space Station (ISS).

2.1 STS-108: Logistics and Education in Orbit (December 2001)

Kelly’s first flight was as the Pilot of STS-108 aboard Space Shuttle Endeavour.¹

Mission Objectives:

STS-108 was a Utilization Flight (UF-1) designed to rotate the ISS crew (delivering Expedition 4 and returning Expedition 3) and transfer supplies via the Raffaello Multi-Purpose Logistics Module (MPLM).10

Orbital Mechanics and Piloting:

As the Pilot, Kelly was responsible for monitoring the shuttle’s systems during the eight-and-a-half-minute ascent to orbit. During the rendezvous phase, he assisted Commander Dominic Gorie in executing the precise burn maneuvers required to match the shuttle’s orbit with that of the ISS, which travels at approximately 17,500 miles per hour.10 The docking process requires aligning the two vehicles with a tolerance of just a few inches while traveling at hypersonic speeds relative to the ground.

Scientific Payloads:

STS-108 was not merely a "trucking" mission; it carried significant scientific payloads:

• Avian Development Facility (ADF): This experiment contained Japanese quail eggs to study embryogenesis in microgravity. The goal was to validate subsystems for future biological research and to see if avian embryos could develop normally without the gravity vector to orient them inside the egg.¹²

• STARSHINE 2: Kelly’s crew deployed this passive satellite from the payload bay. STARSHINE 2 was a sphere covered in 845 mirrors polished by students from 26 countries.¹³ As the satellite orbited, it spun, reflecting sunlight in flashes visible from Earth. Students tracked these flashes to calculate the satellite's orbital decay rate, which provided real-time data on the density of the Earth's upper atmosphere (thermosphere). This experiment linked upper-atmospheric physics directly to classroom education.¹³

2.2 STS-121: Return to Flight and Risk Mitigation (July 2006)

Kelly served as the Pilot for STS-121 aboard Discovery, a mission of critical importance to the survival of the shuttle program. This was the second "Return to Flight" mission following the Columbia disaster in 2003, where a piece of foam insulation breached the thermal protection system (TPS) on the wing leading edge.¹⁴

Technological Innovations:

The primary objective of STS-121 was to test new safety procedures and equipment designed to prevent another Columbia incident.

• Orbiter Boom Sensor System (OBSS): Kelly and the crew utilized the OBSS, a 50-foot extension boom equipped with laser sensors and high-resolution cameras, attached to the end of the shuttle’s robotic arm (Canadarm).¹⁵ This allowed the crew to inspect the reinforced carbon-carbon (RCC) panels on the wing leading edges and the nose cap for any damage sustained during launch.

• Rendezvous Pitch Maneuver (RPM): As Discovery approached the ISS, Kelly helped execute the RPM, a maneuver where the shuttle performs a 360-degree backflip directly beneath the station. This exposed the heat shield tiles on the shuttle’s underbelly to the ISS crew, who used high-powered telephoto lenses to photograph the tiles for analysis by ground control.¹⁵

Repair Demonstrations:

The mission included three spacewalks (EVAs). During the third EVA, astronauts tested a technique for repairing the shuttle's thermal protection system in space using a "blade blocker" and special epoxies, validating that a crew could potentially fix a minor breach in the heat shield before re-entry.17

2.3 STS-124: The Japanese Experiment Module (May 2008)

Kelly’s first mission as Commander was STS-124 aboard Discovery. This mission was pivotal for the international partnership, as it delivered the Kibō Pressurized Module (JPM), the largest single habitable volume on the ISS.¹⁸

Payload Architecture:

The Kibō laboratory is a massive cylinder, 11.2 meters long and 4.4 meters in diameter, weighing over 32,000 pounds.18 It provides a "shirt-sleeve" environment for up to four astronauts to conduct experiments.

• JEMRMS (Japanese Experiment Module Remote Manipulator System): Along with the module, Kelly’s mission delivered the Japanese robotic arm. Unlike the main station arm, the JEMRMS has a "Main Arm" and a "Fine Arm," designed specifically to manipulate small payloads on the Kibō "Terrace" (Exposed Facility), a platform open to the vacuum of space for materials science and astronomy experiments.¹⁹

Operational Complexity:

Commanding this mission involved complex robotics. The crew had to use the shuttle’s arm to lift the massive JPM out of the payload bay and berth it to the Harmony module. They then had to relocate the logistics module (delivered on the previous flight) to the top of the JPM.20 This required precise coordination between the shuttle crew and the station crew, managing the clearances of multi-ton modules moving within inches of the station structure.

Table 2: Mark Kelly's Spaceflight Mission Log

Mission	Dates	Orbiter	Role	Primary Payload / Objective	Distance Traveled
STS-108	Dec 5-17, 2001	Endeavour	Pilot	Crew Rotation (Exp 4), MPLM Raffaello, STARSHINE 2	4.8 million miles
STS-121	July 4-17, 2006	Discovery	Pilot	Return to Flight, TPS Inspection (OBSS), MPLM Leonardo	5.3 million miles
STS-124	May 31 - June 14, 2008	Discovery	Commander	Kibō Pressurized Module (JEM-PM), JEMRMS	5.7 million miles
STS-134	May 16 - June 1, 2011	Endeavour	Commander	Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer (AMS-02), ELC-3	6.5 million miles
Total				4 Missions, 54 Days in Space	~22.3 million miles

Part III: The Scientific Apex – STS-134 and the Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer

Mark Kelly’s final mission, STS-134, launched in May 2011. It was the final flight of Space Shuttle Endeavour and the penultimate flight of the entire shuttle program.²² While historically significant for these reasons, its true legacy lies in its primary payload: the Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer-02 (AMS-02).

3.1 The AMS-02: A Particle Physics Detector in Space

The delivery of the AMS-02 represented the integration of high-energy particle physics with space exploration. The AMS-02 is essentially a miniature version of the massive detectors used in particle accelerators like the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) at CERN, but designed to operate in the harsh thermal and vacuum environment of low Earth orbit (LEO).²³

Scientific Objectives:

The primary goal of the AMS-02 is to answer fundamental questions about the composition of the universe, specifically regarding dark matter and antimatter.23

• The Antimatter Puzzle: The Big Bang theory suggests that matter and antimatter should have been created in equal amounts. However, the observable universe is composed almost entirely of matter. AMS-02 searches for primordial antimatter (such as anti-helium or anti-carbon nuclei) that would indicate the existence of anti-stars or anti-galaxies.²³

• Dark Matter Detection: Dark matter makes up about 27% of the universe but cannot be seen directly. AMS-02 detects high-energy cosmic rays (positrons, electrons, antiprotons). An excess of these particles in certain energy ranges could be the signature of dark matter particles colliding and annihilating each other.²³

Technical Specifications:

The instrument weighs approximately 15,000 pounds (6,800 kg) and measures 64 cubic meters.23

• The Magnet: The core of the device is a powerful magnet. As charged cosmic rays pass through the magnet, their paths are bent. The direction and degree of the bend reveal the particle's electrical charge (positive or negative) and its momentum. Originally designed with a superconducting magnet, the design was switched to a permanent magnet to extend its operational lifespan, allowing it to function for the entire life of the ISS.²³

• Detectors: It contains a Transition Radiation Detector (TRD), a Time-of-Flight (TOF) system, and a Silicon Tracker. These instruments work in concert to measure the particle's velocity, charge, and energy with a precision of approximately 1%.²⁷

3.2 Mission Execution and Context

Kelly commanded the mission to deliver this $2 billion instrument. The installation involved removing the AMS-02 from the shuttle’s payload bay using the shuttle’s robotic arm and handing it off to the station’s Canadarm2 for installation on the starboard side of the ISS truss.²⁰ This location allows the detector to point towards deep space without obstruction.

Resilience Under Pressure:

The preparation for STS-134 was marked by a profound personal tragedy. On January 8, 2011, Kelly’s wife, Congresswoman Gabrielle Giffords, was shot in the head during an assassination attempt in Tucson.28 Kelly took a brief leave from training to oversee her critical care but returned to command the mission, a decision that highlighted his extreme compartmentalization and dedication to duty. Giffords recovered sufficiently to attend the launch in person, a moment of national emotional significance.28

Legacy of the Payload:

Since its installation by Kelly’s crew, the AMS-02 has collected over 17 billion cosmic ray events.24 It has provided precise data on the flux of positrons, challenging existing astrophysical models and providing tantalizing hints (though not yet definitive proof) of dark matter interactions. It remains the most sophisticated scientific instrument ever deployed to the ISS.27

Part IV: The NASA Twins Study – A Unique Contribution to Genomics

After retiring from spaceflight in 2011, Mark Kelly continued to contribute to NASA’s exploration goals in a capacity that required him to stay on Earth. The NASA Twins Study (2015-2016) was a landmark investigation that utilized Mark and Scott Kelly as the subjects of a controlled genomic experiment.²⁹

4.1 Study Design: The Perfect Genetic Control

In scientific experiments, controlling variables is paramount. Studying the effects of spaceflight on the human body is difficult because individual genetic differences often mask environmental effects. However, because Mark and Scott Kelly are identical monozygotic twins, they share near-identical DNA. This allowed researchers to use Mark (on Earth) as a near-perfect control subject while Scott spent 340 days aboard the ISS.³¹

4.2 Key Scientific Findings

The study involved ten research teams examining everything from cognition to gut bacteria. Several key findings have reshaped our understanding of long-duration spaceflight physiology:

1. Telomere Dynamics (The "Spaceflight Paradox"):

Telomeres are the protective caps at the ends of chromosomes, similar to the plastic tips on shoelaces. On Earth, telomeres naturally shorten as a person ages and cells divide; short telomeres are associated with aging and disease.

• The Finding: Unexpectedly, researchers found that Scott’s telomeres lengthened significantly while he was in space. This was counter-intuitive given the high-stress, high-radiation environment of orbit.³³

• The Reversal: Upon his return to Earth, Scott’s telomeres shortened rapidly, and he ended up with a higher percentage of "short telomeres" than he had before the mission. This rapid shortening may indicate a risk of accelerated aging or cellular instability post-flight.³³ Mark’s telomeres remained stable throughout the period, confirming the effect was due to the space environment.

2. Gene Expression and Epigenetics:

While the twins' DNA code remained identical, the expression of that code changed. Gene expression is the process by which specific genes are turned "on" or "off" to produce proteins.

• The "Space Gene" Response: Researchers observed changes in the expression of thousands of genes in Scott’s body related to the immune system, DNA repair, and bone formation.³⁴ This is believed to be the body’s adaptive response to the stress of microgravity and radiation.

• Long-Term Impact: While 93% of Scott’s gene expression returned to baseline after returning to Earth, 7% remained altered six months later.³⁵ These "space genes" suggest that long-duration missions to Mars could trigger permanent physiological changes at the molecular level.

3. Cognitive Function:

A battery of cognitive tests measured speed, accuracy, and spatial orientation.

• The Finding: Scott’s cognitive performance remained high during the mission, comparable to Mark’s on Earth. However, post-flight, Scott experienced a decline in cognitive speed and accuracy that persisted for several months.³¹ This suggests that the re-adaptation to gravity may be as neurologically taxing as the adaptation to microgravity.

Implications for Mars:

The Twins Study provided the first integrated molecular view of the human body in space. The data derived from Mark and Scott is now used to design radiation shielding and medical protocols for the Artemis program and future crewed missions to Mars.32

Table 3: Summary of NASA Twins Study Findings (Mark vs. Scott)

Biological Area	Observation in Space (Scott) vs. Earth (Mark)	Post-Flight Outcome
Telomeres	Scott's telomeres lengthened (unexpectedly). Mark's were stable.	Scott's shortened rapidly upon return; increased count of short telomeres.
Gene Expression	Significant changes in Scott's immune/DNA repair genes ("Space Genes").	93% returned to normal; 7% remained altered (persistent change).
Cognition	Scott's in-flight performance was stable.	Scott showed decline in speed/accuracy during post-flight re-adaptation.
Microbiome	Scott's gut bacteria diversity shifted in space.	Microbiome returned to pre-flight baseline upon return to Earth diet.

Part V: Legislative Engineering – The Senate Years

Mark Kelly’s transition to the U.S. Senate in 2020 marked a shift from operating technical systems to engineering legislative ones. However, the methodology remained consistent: a focus on supply chains, infrastructure resilience, and strategic competition.²

5.1 The CHIPS and Science Act: Securing the Microstructure

One of Senator Kelly’s most significant policy contributions is his work on the CHIPS and Science Act of 2022. This legislation addresses a critical vulnerability in the U.S. economy and national defense: the reliance on foreign semiconductors.³

The Strategic Context:

Semiconductors are the foundational component of modern electronics, from smartphones to the guidance systems of the missiles Kelly once fired. The U.S. share of global chip manufacturing had fallen from 37% in 1990 to 12% in 2020, with the vast majority of production centered in East Asia.3 This presented a supply chain risk that Kelly, with his logistics background, identified as a national security threat.

Legislative Mechanics:

The Act authorizes roughly $280 billion in funding, including $52 billion specifically for domestic manufacturing subsidies.3

• Kelly's Amendment - The "Building Chips in America Act": Kelly recognized that authorizing funds was insufficient if the factories could not be built quickly. He identified that the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) review process could delay construction of new "fabs" (fabrication plants) for years.

• The Solution: Kelly introduced and successfully passed the Building Chips in America Act.³⁶ This legislation streamlines the federal permitting process for microchip projects that receive CHIPS Act funding. It creates categorical exclusions for projects that have already undergone rigorous state-level environmental reviews, preventing duplicative bureaucracy. This was a classic engineering optimization: removing a redundant step in a critical path to accelerate the timeline.³⁶

Impact on Arizona:

As a result of this environment, Arizona has become a central hub for the "Silicon Desert." Taiwan Semiconductor Manufacturing Company (TSMC) committed to a $65 billion investment in Phoenix, supported by a finalized $6.6 billion CHIPS Act award facilitated by Kelly’s advocacy.37 This represents one of the largest foreign direct investments in U.S. history.

5.2 Renewable Energy: The La Paz County Solar Project

Kelly’s work on the Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works (EPW) reflects a focus on maximizing the utility of federal lands for energy production.³⁸

The La Paz County Solar Energy and Job Creation Act:

Kelly introduced legislation to transfer 3,400 acres of federal land to La Paz County, Arizona, specifically for solar development.4

• Technical Scale: The project is designed to generate 500 megawatts (MW) of solar capacity. Crucially, it includes provisions for 900 megawatt-hours (MWh) of battery storage.⁴

• Grid Stability: The inclusion of battery storage is technically significant. Solar generation is intermittent; batteries allow the plant to store energy during peak irradiance and discharge it during the evening ramp, stabilizing the grid frequency. This project aligns with Kelly’s voting record on the Inflation Reduction Act, which heavily subsidized such storage technologies.³⁹

5.3 Defense and Intelligence: AI for America

Serving on the Senate Intelligence Committee and as Ranking Member of the Airland Subcommittee (Armed Services), Kelly has focused on the intersection of technology and warfare.⁴⁰

AI Security Readiness:

Kelly co-sponsored the Advanced AI Security Readiness Act with Senator Todd Young. This bill directs the National Security Agency (NSA) to develop security guidance to protect U.S. artificial intelligence models from theft or sabotage by foreign adversaries.42

• The Threat Vector: Kelly argues that AI algorithms are high-value targets for espionage. If an adversary steals the weights and parameters of a sophisticated U.S. model, they can replicate the capability without the R&D cost, or find adversarial inputs to "poison" the model.

• The AI Horizon Fund: In his "AI for America" roadmap, Kelly proposed an "AI Horizon Fund," which would require major AI developers to contribute to a fund supporting workforce retraining and infrastructure, ensuring that the economic displacement caused by automation is mitigated by the industry driving it.⁴³

Table 4: Key Legislative Initiatives and Committee Assignments

Committee / Role	Legislative Action	Technical/Policy Goal
Armed Services (Airland Subcmte)	Advanced AI Security Readiness Act	Direct NSA to secure AI IP from foreign theft; integrate AI into defense.
Environment & Public Works	La Paz County Solar Act	Transfer 3,400 acres for 500MW Solar + 900MWh Storage.
Commerce / Science	CHIPS & Science Act	$52B for domestic semiconductor mfg; supply chain resilience.
General Senate	Building Chips in America Act	Streamline NEPA permitting for high-tech construction projects.

Conclusion

The career of Mark Kelly serves as a case study in the transferability of technical expertise to high-level governance. His professional life has been defined by the operation of complex machines—from the A-6E Intruder in the flak-filled skies of Iraq to the Space Shuttle Endeavour docking with the International Space Station. In each of these roles, the margin for error was non-existent, and success depended on a rigorous adherence to physical laws and operational protocols.

As a Senator, Kelly has applied this same "mission-critical" mindset to the machinery of government. Whether streamlining the permitting process for semiconductor fabrication plants or designing legislation to secure AI algorithms, his policy work is characterized by an engineer's desire to reduce friction and optimize output. His contribution to the NASA Twins Study further underscores a commitment to science that transcends his own active service, providing the biological baseline necessary for the next generation of astronauts to voyage to Mars. In Mark Kelly, the Senate possesses not just a politician, but a veteran technocrat who understands that the laws of physics—and the laws of economics—must be respected to achieve a successful launch.

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