India’s Orbital Ambition: Analyzing the Technical Creation of the Gaganyaan-1

Abstract

The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) stands at the precipice of a defining era with the imminent launch of the Gaganyaan-1 (G1) mission. Scheduled for the first quarter of 2026, this uncrewed orbital test flight represents the cornerstone of the Indian Human Spaceflight Programme (IHSP). It serves as the primary qualification vehicle for the Human-Rated Launch Vehicle Mark 3 (HLVM3), the Orbital Module (OM) architecture, and the complex integrated network of ground and naval recovery systems. This monograph provides an exhaustive technical analysis of the G1 mission, dissecting the engineering modifications required for human-rating the launch vehicle, the aerothermodynamic challenges of atmospheric re-entry, the bio-mimetic validation roles of the "Vyommitra" humanoid, and the strategic logistical framework of recovery operations in the Indian Ocean. Synthesizing data from precursor missions such as the Space Capsule Recovery Experiment (SRE-1) and the Crew Module Atmospheric Re-entry Experiment (CARE), as well as recent Test Vehicle (TV-D1) abort demonstrations, this report elucidates the technological trajectory of India's ascent as an independent human spaceflight power.

1. Introduction: The Strategic and Historical Context of the Gaganyaan Programme

The evolution of India's space capabilities has followed a pragmatic trajectory, initially prioritizing societal benefits through satellite communication, meteorology, and remote sensing. However, the announcement of the Gaganyaan programme marked a decisive pivot towards strategic capability demonstration and human presence in Low Earth Orbit (LEO). While the formal governmental approval was granted in 2018, the technological genesis of the mission stretches back nearly two decades, characterized by an iterative engineering philosophy that separates complex problems into manageable demonstrator missions.¹

The G1 mission is not an isolated event but the culmination of a "crawl, walk, run" approach to space exploration. The foundational technologies were first tested in January 2007 with the Space Capsule Recovery Experiment (SRE-1). This 550-kilogram capsule was pivotal in validating ISRO's ability to navigate a spacecraft from orbit back to Earth, proving the efficacy of reusable thermal protection materials and the guidance algorithms necessary to manage the re-entry corridor.¹ The SRE-1 mission demonstrated that ISRO could master the hypersonic aerothermodynamics required to survive the searing heat of atmospheric entry and execute a precision splashdown in the Bay of Bengal.¹

Seven years later, the Crew Module Atmospheric Re-entry Experiment (CARE) in December 2014 provided the next leap in capability. Launched aboard the suborbital LVM3-X flight, the CARE module was a full-scale boilerplate of the Gaganyaan crew capsule. It validated the aerodynamic stability of the blunt-body shape during hypersonic descent and, crucially, tested the parachute deceleration system.³ The success of CARE confirmed that the aerodynamic configuration chosen—similar to the Apollo and Soyuz modules—was stable and controllable.

The G1 mission, therefore, integrates these disparate technological threads into a unified, flight-ready architecture. It is the first of a series of uncrewed pathfinders (G1, G2, G3) intended to certify the entire flight stack for human occupancy. The objectives are rigorous: verifying the structural integrity of the HLVM3 under human-rated safety factors, validating the Environmental Control and Life Support System (ECLSS) in a zero-gravity environment using a humanoid simulator, and executing a complex recovery operation involving the Indian Navy.² The successful completion of G1 is the absolute prerequisite for the subsequent G2 mission and the eventual H1 crewed launch, making it the linchpin of the entire Indian Human Spaceflight Programme.⁵

2. Launch Vehicle Architecture: The Human-Rated LVM3 (HLVM3)

The transportation system selected to loft the Gaganyaan Orbital Module is the Human-Rated Launch Vehicle Mark 3 (HLVM3). This vehicle is a heavily modified derivative of ISRO’s heavy-lift LVM3 (formerly GSLV Mk III), which has a proven track record of launching geostationary satellites and the Chandrayaan lunar missions. The transition from a satellite launcher to a human-rated carrier involves a comprehensive re-engineering process focused on reliability, redundancy, and fault tolerance, distinct from the performance-optimization focus of commercial launchers.⁶

2.1 The Philosophy of Human Rating

Human rating a launch vehicle is not merely about adding safety systems; it requires a fundamental re-evaluation of the vehicle's design margins. For the HLVM3, ISRO has adopted a safety factor of 1.4 for structural loading, significantly higher than the standard margins used for uncrewed missions.⁷ This ensures that the vehicle can withstand the unexpected dynamic loads that might occur during an abort scenario or extreme atmospheric turbulence. The certification process involves verifying that the probability of a catastrophic failure is below a stringent threshold, necessitating redundant avionics chains and high-reliability propulsion components.⁶

2.2 Propulsion System Modifications

The HLVM3 retains the three-stage configuration of its predecessor: two solid strap-on boosters (S200), a liquid core stage (L110), and a cryogenic upper stage (C25). However, each stage has undergone critical modifications.

2.2.1 The HS200 Solid Rocket Boosters

The S200 boosters provide the immense thrust required to lift the 640-tonne stack off the pad. In standard solid rockets, once ignited, the propellant burns until exhaustion, making them inherently dangerous if a malfunction occurs. To mitigate risks, the Human-rated S200 (HS200) boosters feature improved grain geometry and enhanced segment joint integrity. A critical failure mode in segmented solid boosters is hot gas leakage through the joints (a phenomenon infamous for the Challenger disaster). The HS200 joints have been upgraded with three O-rings instead of the standard two, providing an additional layer of sealing redundancy.⁹ Furthermore, the operating chamber pressure has been de-rated from 58.8 bar to 55.5 bar. This deliberate reduction in pressure lowers the mechanical stress on the motor casing, trading a small amount of performance for a significant gain in safety margins.⁹ The ignition systems have also been fortified with redundant pyrotechnic circuits to ensure reliable ignition and separation.

2.2.2 The L110 Liquid Core Stage

The L110 core stage, powered by two Vikas engines, ignites 114 seconds into the flight. For the human-rated mission, these engines are designated as High Thrust Vikas Engines (HTVE). Similar to the boosters, the operating parameters of the L110 have been adjusted for safety. The chamber pressure is maintained at 58.5 bar, reduced from the commercial standard of 62 bar.⁹ This reduction alleviates thermal and mechanical stresses on the engine throat and turbomachinery, reducing the likelihood of a catastrophic failure during the critical ascent phase where the vehicle is accelerating through the upper atmosphere. The hydraulic actuators used for thrust vector control in the standard LVM3 have been replaced with electro-mechanical actuators and digital stage controllers in the HLVM3. This upgrade eliminates the risk of hydraulic fluid leaks and provides faster, more precise control responses, which are essential for managing the aerodynamic instability of the vehicle in the event of an abort.⁹

2.2.3 The C25 Cryogenic Upper Stage

The final injection into orbit is achieved by the C25 cryogenic stage, powered by the CE-20 engine. The human-rating of a cryogenic stage is particularly challenging due to the complex thermodynamics of liquid hydrogen and oxygen. The C25 for Gaganyaan has undergone extensive ground qualification tests, including long-duration "hot fires" that simulate the full flight duration and off-nominal conditions such as mixture ratio variations.¹⁰ The avionics architecture of the stage has been overhauled to include Quad-redundant Navigation and Guidance Computers (NGC) and dual-chain Telemetry and Telecommand Processors (TTCP).⁹ This "fail-operational, fail-safe" architecture ensures that even if multiple computing lanes fail, the vehicle can still safely complete the mission or execute a controlled abort.

2.3 Structural Aerodynamics and Load Management

The HLVM3 is approximately 53 meters tall with a lift-off mass of 640 tonnes. A significant structural addition for the Gaganyaan mission is the Crew Escape System (CES), a tower mounted atop the crew module.⁶ The presence of the CES alters the aerodynamic profile of the vehicle, introducing new transonic buffeting modes and aero-acoustic loads.

To ensure structural integrity, extensive wind tunnel testing and Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) simulations—using indigenous software like PraVaHa—have been conducted.¹¹ These studies analyze the airflow over the complex geometry of the escape tower and the transition section between the payload fairing and the core stage. The data from these simulations informed the structural reinforcement of the payload fairing and the inter-stage adapters, ensuring they can withstand the "Hammerhead" aerodynamic effects where the diameter of the payload fairing exceeds that of the core stage.

Table 1: Comparative Specifications of LVM3 vs. HLVM3

Feature	Standard LVM3 (Commercial)	HLVM3 (Human-Rated)	Engineering Rationale
Booster Pressure	58.8 bar	55.5 bar	Reduces casing stress; increases safety factor.9
Booster Joints	Double O-ring	Triple O-ring	Mitigates risk of hot gas leak/burn-through.9
Core Engine	Vikas (62 bar)	HTVE (58.5 bar)	Reduces thermal load on engine components.9
Control Actuation	Hydraulic	Electro-Mechanical	Eliminates fluid leaks; improves response time.9
Avionics	Dual Redundant	Quad Redundant (NGC)	Provides tolerance against multiple system faults.9
Safety Factor	~1.1 - 1.25	1.4	Ensures structural survival under abort loads.7

3. The Orbital Module: Spacecraft Design and Engineering

The payload for the HLVM3 is the Orbital Module (OM), a composite spacecraft comprising the Crew Module (CM) and the Service Module (SM). This integrated stack functions as the habitat, laboratory, and re-entry vehicle.

3.1 The Crew Module (CM) Architecture

The Crew Module is a conical pressure vessel designed to house the astronauts—or in the G1 mission, the Vyommitra robot. It is the only part of the spacecraft that returns to Earth.

• Structural Design: The CM features a double-walled construction. The inner wall is a pressurized metallic structure, likely aluminum alloy, designed to hold an Earth-like atmosphere (nitrogen-oxygen mix) against the vacuum of space. The outer wall is an unpressurized structure that holds the Thermal Protection System (TPS) tiles and defines the aerodynamic shape.¹²

• Dimensions: With a base diameter of 3.5 meters and a height of 3.58 meters, the module offers a habitable volume of approximately 8 cubic meters.¹ This volume is optimized for a crew of three, balancing the need for living space with the constraints of mass and launch vehicle fairing size.

• Avionics and Interfaces: The CM is equipped with a sophisticated glass cockpit and human-centric interfaces. For G1, these interfaces will be actuated by Vyommitra. The avionics include an Integrated Health Monitoring System (IHMS) that continuously tracks the status of life support, power, and propulsion systems, autonomously triggering aborts if critical thresholds are breached.⁹

3.2 The Service Module (SM) Systems

The Service Module is the powerhouse of the spacecraft, providing propulsion, power, and thermal control while in orbit. It is jettisoned prior to re-entry and burns up in the atmosphere.

• Propulsion Architecture: The SM uses a unified bipropellant propulsion system, utilizing MON-3 (Mixed Oxides of Nitrogen) as the oxidizer and MMH (Monomethylhydrazine) as the fuel. The primary propulsion is provided by five main engines, each generating 440 Newtons of thrust.¹ These engines are derived from the proven Liquid Apogee Motor (LAM) and are responsible for orbit injection corrections, circularization, and the critical de-orbit burn. Additionally, sixteen 100 Newton Reaction Control System (RCS) thrusters are distributed around the module to provide 3-axis attitude control.¹

• Power Generation: The SM carries deployable solar array wings that generate power for the OM's batteries. The deployment mechanism has been rigorously tested to ensure the panels deploy reliably in microgravity without inducing destabilizing torques or obstructing the CM's communication antennas.¹⁰

• Thermal Control: The SM houses the radiators for the active thermal control system. Fluid loops circulate coolant between the CM and SM, picking up heat from the avionics and crew and rejecting it into deep space via the SM radiators.

4. Mission Profile: The Gaganyaan-1 Flight Plan

The Gaganyaan-1 mission is a complete dress rehearsal for the crewed flight. Every phase of the mission, from launch to recovery, mimics the crewed profile to the highest fidelity possible.

4.1 Ascent and Orbital Injection

The mission will launch from the Second Launch Pad at SDSC SHAR. The ascent profile is shaped not just for orbital efficiency, but to maintain a safe abort corridor throughout the flight. The S200 boosters will burn for approximately 2 minutes, followed by the L110 core stage. The C25 upper stage will then inject the Orbital Module into a highly elliptical orbit of 170 km x 408 km.¹

Following separation from the launch vehicle, the Service Module's propulsion system will execute a circularization burn at the apogee, raising the periigee to achieve a stable 400 km Low Earth Orbit (LEO).¹² This altitude is chosen to balance radiation exposure (which increases at higher altitudes) with atmospheric drag (which increases at lower altitudes).

4.2 Orbital Operations Phase

Once in the stable orbit, the spacecraft will operate autonomously. The G1 mission is expected to last approximately 2 to 3 days, although the spacecraft is designed for a 7-day endurance.¹ During this phase, the primary objective is the validation of the Environmental Control and Life Support System (ECLSS).

• ECLSS Validation: The ECLSS must maintain cabin pressure, temperature (18°C - 25°C), and humidity within comfortable limits.¹³ It must also scrub carbon dioxide and trace contaminants. The G1 mission will test the system's ability to respond to the metabolic loads simulated by Vyommitra.¹⁴

• Microgravity Research: The mission will also carry a suite of microgravity experiments. The zero-gravity environment allows for unique studies in fluid dynamics, material science, and biology that are impossible on Earth.²

4.3 De-orbit and Separation

The return phase begins with a precise de-orbit maneuver. The Service Module reorients the spacecraft to a retrograde attitude (engines facing forward) and fires the main engines to reduce velocity. This lowers the perigee of the orbit, ensuring it dips deep into the atmosphere.

Following the burn, the critical separation event occurs. Pyrotechnic cutters sever the structural connections between the CM and SM, and springs push the two modules apart.10 This separation must be clean to prevent re-contact. The SM is left to tumble and burn up, while the CM reorients itself for re-entry, positioning its heat shield towards the velocity vector.

5. Vyommitra: The Bio-Mimetic Payload

A unique and critical aspect of the G1 mission is the inclusion of "Vyommitra," a humanoid robot designed to bridge the gap between uncrewed testing and human flight.

5.1 System Architecture and Design

Developed by the Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre (VSSC) and the Central Tool Room & Training Centre (CTTC), Vyommitra is a "half-humanoid" possessing a head, torso, and arms, but no lower limbs.¹⁴ It is constructed from space-grade aluminum alloys and advanced polymers to minimize mass while ensuring it can survive the high-G loads and vibrations of launch.¹⁵

• Degrees of Freedom: The robot features multiple degrees of freedom in its neck, shoulders, elbows, and fingers, allowing it to mimic the physical movements of an astronaut. This includes reaching for switches, turning knobs, and reading display panels.¹⁶

• AI and Voice Interaction: Vyommitra is AI-enabled and capable of speech synthesis and recognition in both Hindi and English. This allows it to simulate voice interactions with ground control, testing the communication loops.¹⁵

5.2 Functional Validation Roles

Vyommitra is not merely a passenger; it is an active test device.

• Metabolic Simulation: A critical function is the simulation of human metabolic output. The robot is integrated with a system that releases Carbon Dioxide (CO2) and heat at rates corresponding to human respiration.¹⁴ This "artificial metabolism" challenges the ECLSS to scrub the atmosphere and maintain thermal equilibrium, providing a realistic test of the life support hardware.

• Human Factors Data: The robot is instrumented with a comprehensive sensor suite to measure the environment exactly as a human would experience it. Accelerometers record the vibration transmitted through the seat, microphones record acoustic levels, and cameras monitor the visual field.¹⁵ This data is crucial for validating the ergonomics of the crew cabin and ensuring that the environment remains within human tolerance limits.

6. Aerothermodynamics: Re-entry Physics and Thermal Protection

The return of the Crew Module involves surviving the most hostile phase of the mission: atmospheric re-entry. The module enters the atmosphere at a velocity of approximately 7.9 km/s (Mach 25).

6.1 Hypersonic Aerodynamics and Heating

As the module slams into the upper atmosphere, it creates a powerful bow shock wave. The air in front of the blunt heat shield is compressed violently, converting the spacecraft's immense kinetic energy into thermal energy. The temperature of the air in the shock layer can exceed 2,000°C to 2,500°C.13

To protect the structure, the CM utilizes an Ablative Thermal Protection System (TPS).

• Carbon Phenolic Tiles: The forward heat shield, which bears the brunt of the heating, is covered with tiles made of carbon phenolic composite. This material is chosen for its ability to withstand high shear forces and heat fluxes exceeding 150 W/cm².¹⁸

• Ablation Mechanism: Ablative materials work by sacrificing themselves. As the surface heats up, the material undergoes pyrolysis (chemical decomposition), creating a layer of char. The gases generated by this process are injected into the boundary layer flow, creating a cooler insulating gas film that blocks the transfer of heat to the spacecraft body.¹⁹

• Silica Phenolic: The leeward side of the capsule, which experiences relatively lower heating, is covered with lighter medium-density silica phenolic tiles to save weight.¹⁸

6.2 Plasma Blackout Phenomenon

The intense heat of re-entry strips electrons from the air molecules, creating a sheath of ionized plasma around the spacecraft. This plasma layer is electrically conductive and opaque to radio frequency (RF) signals, leading to a "communication blackout."

For Gaganyaan, this blackout is expected to occur between altitudes of roughly 80 km and 40 km.20 During this critical window, the spacecraft is completely cut off from ground control and GPS signals. The onboard Guidance, Navigation, and Control (GNC) computer must rely on Inertial Navigation Systems (INS) to maintain the correct attitude. The data from the SRE-1 mission was instrumental in characterizing this plasma regime and validating the autonomous guidance logic.1

7. Deceleration Architecture: The Parachute System

Once the spacecraft has decelerated to subsonic speeds through atmospheric drag, the Parachute Deceleration System (PDS) takes over to ensure a soft landing. The Gaganyaan PDS is a complex, multi-stage system comprising ten different parachutes.²¹

7.1 Deployment Sequence

The deployment sequence is triggered at an altitude of approximately 7 km and relies on a series of pyrotechnic mortars.²²

1. Apex Cover Separation (ACS): The protective cover at the top of the module is jettisoned using pilot parachutes to expose the main parachute bay.

2. Drogue Parachutes: Two conical drogue parachutes (5.8 meters diameter) are deployed to stabilize the oscillating module and decelerate it from transonic to subsonic speeds. The system is designed with redundancy; a safe landing is possible even if only one drogue deploys.²¹

3. Pilot Parachutes: Upon release of the drogues, they extract three pilot parachutes.

4. Main Parachutes: The pilot chutes pull out the three massive main parachutes, each 25 meters in diameter. These chutes deploy in a "reefed" condition (partially open) initially to limit the opening shock load, before fully inflating.²³ The trio of main parachutes slows the module to a terminal velocity safe for splashdown. The system is designed to be fail-safe; the crew can survive with only two of the three main parachutes functioning.²⁴

7.2 Testing and Validation

The PDS has undergone rigorous testing, including the Integrated Air Drop Tests (IADT) where a simulated crew module was dropped from a Chinook helicopter ²², and rail track sled tests at the Terminal Ballistics Research Laboratory (TBRL) to simulate high-speed deployment.²¹ These tests have validated the deployment logic, the strength of the parachute canopy materials, and the redundancy mechanisms.

8. Maritime Recovery Operations: Logistics and Engineering

The recovery of the crew module is a complex maritime operation led by the Indian Navy. The primary landing zone is in the Arabian Sea, with contingency zones in the Bay of Bengal.¹

8.1 Post-Landing Dynamics

Upon splashdown, the module faces the dynamic environment of the open ocean.

• Crew Module Uprighting System (CMUS): Due to wind and wave action, the capsule may land in an inverted "Stable 2" orientation (upside down). To rectify this, the CMUS is activated. This system consists of gaseous balloons located at the apex of the module that inflate rapidly, shifting the center of buoyancy and forcing the capsule to roll over into the "Stable 1" (upright) position.¹ This upright orientation is critical for establishing satellite communication links and allowing the crew to egress.

8.2 The Well-Deck Recovery Concept

ISRO and the Indian Navy have adopted a "Well-Deck" recovery strategy, utilizing amphibious transport dock ships like the INS Jalashwa.²⁶

• Operation: Once the recovery ship reaches the capsule, a team of divers attaches a towing line. The ship then ballasts down, flooding its rear well-deck to match the sea level. The capsule is towed directly into the flooded hold of the ship. Once secured, the well-deck is drained, leaving the capsule dry and accessible.²⁶

• Advantages: This method is superior to lifting the capsule with a crane, which can be dangerous in rough seas due to the pendulum motion of the load. The well-deck approach decouples the recovery from the sea state to a significant degree, enhancing safety for both the hardware and the recovery personnel.²⁷

8.3 Training and SOPs

The Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs) for recovery have been refined through a series of "Harbour Trials" and open-sea exercises. The Water Survival Training Facility (WSTF) in Kochi serves as the primary training hub, where astronauts and naval divers practice egress drills in a simulated wave pool.²⁸ These drills cover various scenarios, including nominal assisted recovery and emergency egress where the crew must exit the capsule before the ship arrives.

9. Ground Segment and Infrastructure

Supporting the flight hardware is a vast ground infrastructure that has been modernized for the Gaganyaan programme.

9.1 Launch Pad Modifications

The Second Launch Pad (SLP) at Sriharikota has been extensively modified. A new Crew Access Arm (CAA) has been installed at the 45-meter level of the umbilical tower to allow astronauts to enter the spacecraft.¹⁰

• Emergency Egress: In the event of a pad emergency (e.g., a fuel leak or fire), a rapid evacuation system has been installed. This typically involves a slide-chute or zipline system that allows the crew to escape from the white room to a hardened bunker located safe distance away from the launch pad.³⁰

9.2 Communication Network

To ensure continuous tracking of the spacecraft, ISRO has established the Indian Data Relay Satellite System (IDRSS). These geostationary satellites relay telemetry and voice data from the low-orbiting Gaganyaan capsule to the ground stations, eliminating the "blind spots" that occur when the spacecraft is not in direct line-of-sight of a ground antenna.³¹ This network ensures 100% communication visibility during the mission, a critical requirement for human spaceflight.

10. Comparative Analysis: Gaganyaan in the Global Context

Placing Gaganyaan-1 in the context of global human spaceflight reveals its unique strategic and technical positioning.

• Vs. Artemis (NASA): The Artemis programme uses the massive SLS rocket and Orion capsule for deep space (lunar) exploration.³² Gaganyaan is a Low Earth Orbit (LEO) system. While Orion is designed for 21-day deep space missions with high-speed re-entry (11 km/s), Gaganyaan is optimized for LEO re-entry (7.9 km/s) and shorter duration missions.³³

• Vs. Commercial Crew (SpaceX): SpaceX's Crew Dragon utilizes a liquid-fueled integrated launch abort system (SuperDraco). ISRO has opted for the traditional solid-fuel tractor rocket escape tower (CES), similar to the Soyuz and Apollo designs.⁸ The solid tractor design is heavier but considered simpler and more proven for a first-generation human vehicle.

• Launch Vehicle Class: The HLVM3 (10 tonnes to LEO) is in the same medium-lift class as the Soyuz-2 and Long March 2F. It is significantly smaller than the heavy-lift vehicles used by the US and China for their space station construction, but it is perfectly sized for the initial phase of India's programme.

Table 2: Comparison of Crewed Spacecraft Precursors

Parameter	Gaganyaan-1 (India)	Artemis I (USA)	Shenzhou 1 (China)
Launch Vehicle	HLVM3	SLS Block 1	Long March 2F
Destination	LEO (400 km)	Lunar Orbit (DRO)	LEO
Crew Capacity	0 (3 Planned)	0 (4 Planned)	0 (3 Planned)
Payload	Vyommitra (Humanoid)	Mannequins (Helga/Zohar)	Dummy Mass
Escape System	Solid Tractor Tower	Solid Tractor Tower	Solid Tractor Tower
Recovery	Water (Splashdown)	Water (Splashdown)	Land (Touchdown)

11. Conclusion and Future Outlook

The Gaganyaan-1 mission stands as a testament to the maturation of Indian aerospace engineering. It is a mission of "firsts"—the first human-rated rocket from India, the first bio-mimetic space robot, and the first integrated deep-sea recovery of a crew module. While uncrewed, G1 carries the weight of a nation’s aspirations. The technical rigour applied to the HLVM3’s rating, the innovative use of the Vyommitra humanoid for ECLSS validation, and the robust recovery protocols developed with the Indian Navy illustrate a programme that prioritizes safety and self-reliance.

The successful execution of G1 will trigger a cascade of milestones. It will validate the integrated flight stack, clearing the way for the G2 mission and the eventual H1 crewed flight targeted for 2027. Beyond these initial sorties, the technologies proven in Gaganyaan—docking, life support, and orbital maneuvering—will form the building blocks for the proposed Bharatiya Antariksha Station (BAS), ensuring India's sustained presence in the final frontier.³⁴ As the countdown to 2026 begins, Gaganyaan-1 is poised to transform India from a space-faring nation to a space-inhabiting one.

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