Inside the New Record-Breaking 11-Qubit Processor From Silicon Quantum Computing

1. Introduction: The Silicon Imperative and the Quantum Threshold

1.1 The Unfulfilled Promise of the Quantum Age

For the better part of the twenty-first century, the field of quantum computing has existed in a state of tantalizing potentiality. The theoretical underpinnings, established in the 1980s and 1990s by pioneers like Richard Feynman and David Deutsch, suggest that a computer harnessing the laws of quantum mechanics could solve specific classes of problems—such as integer factorization and molecular simulation—exponentially faster than any classical machine. However, the engineering reality has been defined by a persistent struggle against entropy. Quantum states are notoriously fragile; the slightest interaction with the thermal or electromagnetic environment causes "decoherence," collapsing the delicate superposition required for computation into classical randomness.

The industry has fragmented into various "modalities," each attempting to isolate qubits (quantum bits) from this noise in different ways. Superconducting circuits, the approach favored by technology giants like Google and IBM, utilize macroscopic loops of wire cooled to near-absolute zero to create artificial atoms. While these systems have scaled rapidly in qubit count, they are plagued by short coherence times (typically microseconds) and a large physical footprint. Conversely, trapped ion systems, championed by companies like IonQ and Quantinuum, suspend individual charged atoms in a vacuum using electromagnetic fields. These systems offer exquisite fidelity and long coherence but face daunting challenges in scaling the complex laser optics required to control them.

Amidst this diverse ecosystem, silicon—the material backbone of the digital revolution—has always held a unique allure. The global semiconductor industry has spent over sixty years and trillions of dollars perfecting the art of purifying, processing, and patterning silicon.¹ If a quantum computer could be built using this mature industrial substrate, it could theoretically leverage existing supply chains and manufacturing expertise to scale rapidly. However, standard silicon is "dirty" in the quantum sense, filled with magnetic isotopes and defects that destroy quantum information. Consequently, for decades, silicon quantum computing was viewed as a "dark horse"—theoretically superior but experimentally lagging behind its superconducting and trapped-ion rivals.

1.2 The Watershed Moment: December 2025

The narrative of silicon quantum computing underwent a fundamental transformation in late 2025. In a landmark study published in the journal Nature, researchers at Silicon Quantum Computing (SQC), a spin-off company from the University of New South Wales (UNSW) in Sydney, Australia, announced the successful operation of an 11-qubit quantum processor constructed with atomic precision.¹ This device was not merely a laboratory curiosity; it demonstrated performance metrics that shattered previous records for solid-state devices and, crucially, surpassed the stringent thresholds required for fault-tolerant error correction.

The processor, built using a proprietary technique known as hydrogen lithography, achieved single-qubit gate fidelities of 99.99 percent and two-qubit gate fidelities exceeding 99.90 percent.³ These figures are significant because they represent the "break-even point" for the Surface Code, the leading algorithm for correcting quantum errors. For the first time, a silicon-based device had proven it could be accurate enough to correct its own errors, paving the way for the construction of logical qubits—robust, virtual qubits formed by the collective behavior of many physical ones.

This report serves as an exhaustive chronicle of this breakthrough. It is written for the undergraduate physicist or engineer, aiming to bridge the gap between high-level scientific news and deep technical understanding. We will explore the atomic physics of the phosphorus donor, the extreme engineering of the "14|15 platform," and the architectural innovations that solved the notorious "wiring problem," ultimately positioning silicon as the frontrunner for the world's first commercial-scale quantum computer.

2. The Physics of the 14|15 Platform

To understand the magnitude of the SQC achievement, one must first delve into the quantum mechanics of the hardware itself. The term "14|15 platform" is a nod to the periodic table: Silicon (atomic number 14) serves as the host, and Phosphorus (atomic number 15) serves as the qubit.³ This combination is not accidental; it is the result of decades of fundamental research into how these two elements interact at the quantum level.

2.1 The Host: Isotopically Purified Silicon-28

In its natural, "minerally sourced" state, silicon is a mix of isotopes. Roughly 92 percent is Silicon-28 (Si-28), which has a nuclear spin of zero. This is ideal for quantum computing because a zero-spin nucleus is magnetically neutral—it does not generate magnetic noise. However, natural silicon also contains about 4.7 percent Silicon-29 (Si-29). The Si-29 nucleus possesses a spin of one-half. In a crystal lattice containing billions of atoms, this 4.7 percent concentration creates a "magnetic bath"—a fluctuating magnetic field that constantly perturbs any electron or nuclear spin embedded within it. This noise is the primary source of decoherence in standard silicon devices.²

The SQC processor begins with a material revolution: the use of isotopically purified Silicon-28. Through centrifuge processes similar to those used in uranium enrichment, the concentration of Si-29 is reduced to less than 200 parts per million (ppm).² In the active regions of the device, the purity is likely even higher. This purification creates what physicists call a "semiconductor vacuum." It is a solid material that is mechanically rigid and electrically conductive (when doped), yet magnetically silent.

In this purified environment, the quantum coherence of dopant atoms changes dramatically. While electron spins in natural silicon might maintain their quantum state for microseconds, in purified Si-28, they can persist for seconds. For nuclear spins, the coherence times are even longer, measuring in minutes or hours under the right conditions. This profound silence is the canvas upon which the SQC team paints their quantum circuits.

2.2 The Qubit: Phosphorus-31 Nuclear Spin

The heart of the SQC processor is the Phosphorus-31 (P-31) atom. When a phosphorus atom is introduced into a silicon lattice, it replaces a silicon atom. Because phosphorus has five valence electrons (compared to silicon's four), four of them form bonds with the neighboring silicon atoms, locking the phosphorus in place. The fifth electron, however, is loosely bound. It orbits the phosphorus nucleus at a distance of about 2 to 3 nanometers, much like an electron orbits a proton in a hydrogen atom, but scaled up by the dielectric constant of the silicon.⁴

The SQC architecture utilizes a hybrid qubit approach, but the primary carrier of quantum information is the nucleus of the phosphorus atom. The P-31 nucleus has a spin of one-half, making it a natural two-level quantum system (a qubit). The "up" spin state can represent a logical 0, and the "down" spin state a logical 1.

Nuclear spins are exceptional qubits because they are incredibly isolated. Buried deep inside the electron cloud, they are shielded from electrical noise and stray fields. In the 11-qubit processor, the coherence time (T2) of these nuclear spins was measured to be up to 660 milliseconds.³ To put this in perspective, the time it takes to perform a quantum operation (a gate) is on the order of microseconds. This gives the system a "memory depth" of nearly a million operations—a ratio that is orders of magnitude superior to superconducting qubits, which often struggle to perform a few thousand operations before decohering.

2.3 The Hyperfine Interaction: The Handle

If nuclear spins are so well isolated, how does one control them? A qubit that cannot be written to or read from is useless. The solution lies in the hyperfine interaction. This is the magnetic coupling between the phosphorus nucleus and its own orbiting electron.

The electron acts as a "handle" for the nucleus. Because the electron has a much larger magnetic moment (about 2000 times stronger than the nucleus) and a larger spatial extent, it is much easier to manipulate using external electric and magnetic fields. By applying microwave pulses to the electron, the researchers can effectively "talk" to the nucleus.

The strength of this interaction is determined by the overlap of the electron's wavefunction with the nucleus. Crucially, this overlap is tunable. By applying an electric field via a metal gate above the atom, the researchers can pull the electron away from the nucleus (the Stark effect), weakening the hyperfine interaction.⁶ This tunability is a powerful tool: it allows the nucleus to be decoupled from the electron when memory storage is needed (enhancing isolation) and recoupled when operations need to be performed.

3. Atomic Precision Manufacturing: The Engineering of Artifacts

The defining feature of the SQC processor—and the source of its record-breaking fidelity—is the way it is made. Most modern chips, including the processors in smartphones and laptops, are made using "probabilistic doping." Ions are accelerated into the silicon wafer, scattering randomly like buckshot. In a transistor with billions of atoms, the statistical average is what matters. But in quantum computing, a single misplaced atom can ruin the entire device.

SQC employs a deterministic, atom-by-atom fabrication process known as Scanning Tunneling Microscope (STM) Hydrogen Lithography. This technique, refined over 25 years at UNSW, allows for the placement of qubits with sub-nanometer precision.¹

3.1 The Hydrogen Resist and the STM

The fabrication process begins with a wafer of the isotopically purified Si-28. This wafer is placed in an ultra-high vacuum (UHV) chamber—an environment emptier than low-earth orbit—to prevent contamination. The silicon surface is then "passivated" with a single layer of hydrogen atoms. This hydrogen layer acts as a resist; it is chemically inert and prevents anything from sticking to the silicon.

The "pen" used to draw the circuit is the tip of a Scanning Tunneling Microscope (STM). An STM uses a metallic needle so sharp it ends in a single atom. When a voltage is applied to the tip, electrons can tunnel from the tip to the surface. If the voltage is high enough, the electrons can break the bond between a silicon atom and a hydrogen atom, causing the hydrogen to desorb (fly away).

By carefully moving the STM tip, researchers can remove hydrogen atoms from specific lattice sites, exposing the reactive silicon underneath. This allows them to "draw" the locations of the qubits and the control wires with atomic resolution. The precision of this lithography is approximately 0.13 nanometers.¹

3.2 Phosphine Dosing and Incorporation

Once the pattern is written, the chamber is flooded with phosphine gas (PH3). The phosphine molecules bounce off the hydrogen-covered areas but stick instantly to the exposed silicon patches.

The wafer is then heated (annealed). This thermal energy causes the phosphine molecule to break apart. The phosphorus atom sheds its hydrogen atoms and drops into the vacancy in the silicon lattice, becoming a permanent part of the crystal. This process is known as "incorporation."

3.3 Epitaxial Overgrowth and Encapsulation

The final step is encapsulation. At this stage, the phosphorus atoms are sitting on the surface, vulnerable to damage. To turn them into functional qubits, they must be buried. A layer of pure silicon is grown on top of them using Molecular Beam Epitaxy (MBE). This involves heating a source of pure silicon until it sublimates, creating a beam of silicon atoms that gently coats the wafer.

The challenge here is to grow this layer without disturbing the carefully placed phosphorus atoms. If the temperature is too high, the phosphorus atoms will diffuse (move around), destroying the precise pattern. The SQC team has developed a specialized "locking" technique that keeps the atoms in place while the protective silicon layer is grown.⁸

The result is a monolithic block of silicon crystal with phosphorus atoms embedded at precise 3D coordinates. There are no wires or distinct components in the traditional sense; the atoms themselves are the components.

4. Architecture: Solving the "Wiring Problem"

One of the most persistent criticisms of spin-based quantum computing has been the "wiring problem." Because spin qubits are extremely small (nanometer scale), the control electrodes needed to operate them must be packed incredibly tightly. In a standard linear array, fitting the necessary wires to control millions of qubits becomes geometrically impossible. The wires would simply be too thick to fit between the qubits. The SQC 11-qubit processor introduces a modular architecture that elegantly circumvents this bottleneck.

4.1 The Shared Control Paradigm

The SQC architecture breaks the processor down into "registers" or clusters. The 11-qubit device consists of two such registers:

1. The 4P Register: A cluster containing four phosphorus atoms (n1 through n4).

2. The 5P Register: A cluster containing five phosphorus atoms (n5 through n9).

Crucially, the qubits within a register do not have individual control wires. Instead, they share a common set of gates and a single "ancilla" (helper) electron. For example, in the 5P register, all five phosphorus nuclei are coupled to one shared electron (e2).

This design drastically reduces the number of wires required. Instead of one wire per qubit, the system needs only a few wires per register. But how does the controller distinguish between the five qubits if they share the same wire?

4.2 Frequency Division Multiplexing

The answer lies in Frequency Division Multiplexing. Because of the atomic-scale environment, each phosphorus atom experiences a slightly different local magnetic field. Furthermore, the researchers can use the electrostatic gates to tune the Stark shift of each atom individually. This means that each nucleus resonates at a unique Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) frequency.

The NMR frequencies for the nine data qubits in the processor were calibrated to be distinct: 24.221 MHz, 24.450 MHz, 24.534 MHz, and so on, up to 123.026 MHz.⁵ To operate on qubit n1, the controller simply sends a microwave pulse at 24.450 MHz down the shared wire. Qubit n1 absorbs the energy and flips, while its neighbors (tuned to different frequencies) ignore it. This approach allows for dense packing of qubits without the geometric overcrowding of wires, solving a key hurdle for scalability.

5. The Quantum Link: The Electron Exchange Interaction

While individual registers are powerful, a quantum computer must be scalable. To build a large system, one must be able to connect these registers together. This is where the 11-qubit processor made its most significant contribution: the demonstration of a high-fidelity, switchable link between registers.

5.1 The Physics of Exchange

The link is mediated by the Exchange Interaction (J). In quantum mechanics, identical particles like electrons are indistinguishable. When the wavefunctions of two electrons overlap, they effectively "swap" places. This exchange creates an energy difference between the state where their spins are parallel (triplet) and the state where they are anti-parallel (singlet).

In the SQC processor, the two registers (4P and 5P) are separated by a distance of roughly 15-20 nanometers. In the "off" state, a voltage barrier between them prevents the electrons from the two registers from interacting. The exchange energy J is effectively zero.

When the researchers want to connect the registers, they lower this barrier using a gate voltage. The electron wavefunctions spread out and touch. The system enters a "weak exchange" regime where the interaction strength J is approximately 1.55 MHz.² This coupling acts as a channel, allowing quantum information to flow from one register to the other.

5.2 The "Sandwich" Protocol

Connecting the registers is one thing; doing it without introducing errors is another. The electron exchange interaction is sensitive to electrical noise. To protect the fragile quantum information during the transfer, the team developed a specific pulse sequence known as the "Sandwich" protocol.

This protocol is used to perform a Controlled-Z (CZ) gate between a nucleus in the 4P register and a nucleus in the 5P register. The sequence involves:

1. Mapping: The state of the source nucleus is swapped onto its local electron.

2. The Sandwich: The system applies a specific sequence of electron rotations (X gates) interspersed with the exchange interaction. The sequence is structured as X - Interaction - X. The X-gates (180-degree flips) act as a form of "dynamical decoupling." They reverse the direction of the electron's spin evolution halfway through the process.

3. Result: Any phase errors accumulated during the first half of the interaction are canceled out during the second half. This "echo" effect cleans the signal, ensuring that the entanglement established between the electrons is high-fidelity.⁵

5.3 The Discovery of Collective Shifting

One of the engineering nightmares of quantum computing is calibration. Every time a parameter changes (like turning on the exchange link), it can shift the frequencies of all the qubits, requiring a lengthy recalibration process. With millions of qubits, this could make the computer impossibly slow.

During the development of the 11-qubit processor, the SQC team made a critical discovery: the frequency shifts caused by the exchange link are collective. When the link is activated, the frequencies of all the electrons shift by a predictable amount. Instead of measuring 96 distinct frequencies individually (which would take a long time), the team found they could measure just one "reference" frequency and mathematically predict the others.⁵ This finding reduces the calibration overhead from an exponential problem to a linear one, vastly speeding up the operation of the device.

6. Performance Metrics: Redefining "Accuracy"

The claim that this is the "most accurate quantum computing chip ever" is a bold one, especially given the high-fidelity results from trapped-ion competitors. However, the data published in Nature supports this assertion, particularly when considering the speed and scalability of the solid-state platform.

6.1 Fidelity Breakdown

Fidelity is a measure of how close a quantum operation is to the ideal. A fidelity of 99% means that, on average, the operation introduces an error 1% of the time.

• Single-Qubit Fidelity: The SQC processor achieved single-qubit gate fidelities of 99.99 percent.¹ This "four-nines" benchmark is the holy grail of qubit performance. It implies an error rate of just 1 in 10,000. This was measured using Randomized Benchmarking (RB), a rigorous statistical method that involves running thousands of random gate sequences to average out specific errors.

• Two-Qubit Fidelity: The fidelity of the entangling operations—the hardest part of any quantum computation—was equally impressive. The nuclear-nuclear CZ gate achieved 99.90 percent fidelity. The electron-electron exchange gate achieved 99.64 percent.³

These numbers are an order of magnitude better than typical superconducting systems, which generally operate in the 99.7% to 99.9% range for two-qubit gates. While some trapped ion systems have achieved similar fidelities, they operate much slower (millisecond gate times) compared to the faster operation of the silicon device (microsecond gate times).

6.2 Entanglement and GHZ States

To prove that these gates work in concert, the team generated a Greenberger-Horne-Zeilinger (GHZ) state across 8 qubits.¹⁰ A GHZ state is a maximal entanglement of all particles—a "Schrödinger's Cat" state where all 8 atoms are simultaneously 0 and 1.

Creating an 8-qubit GHZ state requires a deep circuit of entangling gates. If any single gate had significant error, the state would collapse. The successful generation and verification of this state serves as a system-level validation of the entire architecture. It proves that the high fidelity of the individual components is preserved when they are connected and operated together.

7. Strategic Implications and the Road to Fault Tolerance

7.1 Crossing the Surface Code Threshold

The true significance of the 99.9% fidelity benchmark lies in its relation to Quantum Error Correction (QEC). In classical computing, errors are rare and can be fixed with simple redundancy (copying data). In quantum computing, you cannot copy data (the No-Cloning Theorem). Instead, researchers use the Surface Code, an algorithm that spreads logical information across a grid of physical qubits.

The Surface Code has a strict "threshold": if the physical error rate is below approximately 1%, the code works. The errors can be detected and corrected faster than they appear. If the error rate is above 1%, the code fails, and adding more qubits actually makes the machine worse.

With error rates around 0.1% (99.9% fidelity), the SQC processor is safely deep within the fault-tolerant regime. This means that SQC can now focus on "Code Mapping"—arranging these high-quality physical qubits to form logical qubits. The researchers estimate that a cluster of approximately 17 registers (about 85 physical qubits) could form a "distance-3" logical qubit, capable of correcting any single error that occurs during computation.³

7.2 The Scalability Roadmap

Unlike competitor systems that are already grappling with the limits of their physical size (superconducting chips are large; ion traps are complex), the silicon approach is just getting started. The 11-qubit chip is microscopic. A million such qubits would fit on a chip the size of a fingernail.

The roadmap for SQC, led by Professor Michelle Simmons, targets a 100-qubit system by 2030 and a full commercial-scale fault-tolerant machine by 2033.¹¹ The modular design of the 11-qubit processor suggests that scaling will involve "tiling"—printing identical copies of the 4P and 5P registers in a 2D grid, connected by the same exchange links demonstrated in this study.

7.3 Geopolitical and Commercial Context

This breakthrough also has significant geopolitical implications. Quantum computing is widely viewed as a critical strategic technology, essential for future capabilities in code-breaking, materials science, and defense.

Australia, through UNSW and SQC, has established itself as a global leader in silicon quantum hardware. Unlike other nations that rely on imported semiconductor technology, SQC manufactures its chips in-house in Sydney, possessing the proprietary STM technology and process recipes. This "sovereign capability" ensures that Australia—and its allies—are not dependent on fragile global supply chains for this critical technology.12

The commercial potential is equally vast. The ability to simulate molecular interactions with high precision (using the long coherence times of the phosphorus qubits) opens the door to revolutionizing industries like fertilizer production (simulating nitrogenase) and drug discovery. SQC has already reported early commercial engagements with entities like Telstra and the Australian Department of Defence.¹

8. Comparative Analysis: The Quantum Landscape

To fully appreciate the SQC breakthrough, it is useful to compare it with the other leading modalities in the field.

Table 1: Comparative Analysis of Leading Quantum Modalities (2025)

Feature	SQC Silicon (11-Qubit)	Superconducting (e.g., Google Willow)	Trapped Ion (e.g., IonQ Forte)
Qubit Type	Nuclear Spin (P-31)	Transmon (Anharmonic Oscillator)	Atomic Ion (e.g., Ytterbium)
Physical Size	~3 nm (Atomic)	~100 μm (Macroscopic)	~Atomic (spaced by μm)
Coherence Time (T2)	~0.6 s - 10 s	100 μ s	>1 s
1-Qubit Fidelity	99.99%	99.8% - 99.9%	99.99% - 99.999%
2-Qubit Fidelity	99.90%	99.5% - 99.8%	99.8% - 99.9%
Gate Speed	Fast (μs)	Very Fast (ns)	Slow (ms)
Manufacturability	High (Semiconductor Compatible)	Medium (Custom Fab)	Low (Complex Optics/Vacuum)
Cooling Req.	~15 mK (Core)	~15 mK	Room Temp or 4K

• vs. Superconductors: Google's "Willow" chip has more qubits (105+), but the fidelity of the individual gates is lower. Silicon wins on coherence time and density. Superconductors win on raw gate speed, though the gap is narrowing.

• vs. Trapped Ions: IonQ's systems have comparable or slightly better fidelity but are much slower and harder to manufacture at scale. Connecting millions of ions requires complex optical switches that are difficult to miniaturize. Silicon's advantage is that the "wires" are printed on the chip.

• vs. Neutral Atoms: Companies like QuEra use lasers to hold atoms in arrays. This is excellent for analog simulation (modeling physics) but has struggled to achieve the high gate fidelities for universal computing that SQC has now demonstrated.

9. Conclusion: The Silicon Era Begins

The publication of the 11-qubit processor results in Nature marks the end of the "experimental" phase of silicon quantum computing and the beginning of the "industrial" phase. For twenty-five years, the community knew that silicon had the potential to be the best platform due to its long coherence times and industrial compatibility. However, the extreme difficulty of fabricating devices with atomic precision kept it behind the curve.

The December 2025 breakthrough proves that these fabrication challenges have been solved. The "wiring problem" has been addressed through the shared control architecture. The "coupling problem" has been solved by the electron exchange link. And the "noise problem" has been solved by the 14|15 platform's purity.

With fidelities of 99.99%, the SQC processor is no longer chasing the leaders; in terms of accuracy, it has surpassed them. As the team moves to tile these registers into larger arrays, the world may soon witness the rise of the first truly scalable, fault-tolerant quantum computer—built not from exotic new materials, but from the very same silicon atoms that powered the information age.

10. Glossary of Terms

• Qubit (Quantum Bit): The basic unit of quantum information. Unlike a classical bit (0 or 1), it can exist in a superposition of both states.

• Fidelity: A measure of the accuracy of a quantum operation. 99.9% fidelity means an error occurs only once in 1000 operations.

• Coherence Time (T_2): The duration a qubit can maintain its quantum state before environmental noise destroys the information.

• Isotopically Purified Silicon: Silicon where the magnetic Si-29 isotope has been removed, leaving only the non-magnetic Si-28.

• Hyperfine Interaction: The magnetic coupling between an electron and the nucleus it orbits.

• Surface Code: A specific error correction code that arranges qubits in a checkerboard pattern to detect and correct errors.

• Stark Shift: The shifting of an atom's energy levels (and thus its resonant frequency) by an applied electric field.

• STM (Scanning Tunneling Microscope): A device that uses a sharp tip to image and manipulate individual atoms on a surface.

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