Mission Complete: Analyzing the 608 Days in Space of Captain Sunita "Suni" Williams

1. Introduction: The Conclusion of a Historic Tenure

On January 22, 2026, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) issued a formal communiqué announcing the retirement of Captain Sunita “Suni” L. Williams, effective December 27, 2025. This announcement brought to a close a twenty-seven-year career that not only spanned the technological transition from the Space Shuttle orbiter to the commercial capsule era but also culminated in one of the most operationally complex and publicly scrutinized missions in the history of the International Space Station (ISS).¹

Williams, a veteran naval aviator and test pilot, departed the agency as one of its most accomplished explorers. Her final dossier included a cumulative 608 days in orbit, ranking her second among all NASA astronauts for total time in space, and a record-breaking 62 hours and 6 minutes of extravehicular activity (EVA) time, the most accumulated by any female astronaut in history.¹ However, it is the circumstances of her final mission—the Boeing Crew Flight Test (CFT)—that are likely to dominate future case studies in aerospace engineering and mission management.

Launched in June 2024 aboard the CST-100 Starliner "Calypso," the mission was architected as a brief, eight-day validation of Boeing’s spacecraft systems, intended to certify the vehicle for routine crew rotations. Instead, a series of propulsion system anomalies—specifically involving reaction control system (RCS) thruster degradation and helium manifold leaks—transformed the test flight into an extended 286-day residency aboard the ISS. This unplanned extension necessitated a fundamental shift in Williams' role from test pilot to expedition commander and ultimately required a cross-platform return aboard a SpaceX Crew Dragon capsule in March 2025.⁵

The trajectory of this final mission serves as a microcosm of the current state of American aerospace: a period defined by the friction between legacy engineering challenges, the imperative of safety following the Space Shuttle disasters, and the operational redundancy provided by a multi-provider commercial ecosystem. This report provides an exhaustive analysis of Williams’ career, the engineering failure modes of the Starliner CFT mission, the operational adaptations required during her extended stay, and the physiological and industrial implications of the mission’s outcome.

1.1 Summary of Suni William's Career Achievements

Metric	Detail	Context
Service Duration	27 Years (1998–2025)	Selected in NASA Astronaut Group 17; retired as Navy Captain.1
Total Time in Space	608 Days	Ranks 2nd among NASA astronauts for cumulative duration.1
Total Spacewalks (EVAs)	9 Excursions	Totaling 62 hours, 6 minutes; historical record for women.1
Spacecraft Flown	Shuttle, Soyuz, Starliner, Dragon	One of the few humans to qualify on four distinct spacecraft types.7
Command Tenures	Expedition 33, Expedition 72	Second woman to command the ISS (Exp 33); led during Starliner crisis (Exp 72).5
Notable Firsts	Marathon & Triathlon in Space	Ran the Boston Marathon (2007) and completed a triathlon on ISS equipment.7

2. The Making of a Commander: Pre-Starliner Career Context

To understand the operational resilience displayed during the Starliner crisis, it is necessary to examine the foundational experiences of Williams’ career. Her path to the launchpad was paved with the rigorous discipline of naval aviation and the technical demands of early ISS assembly.

2.1 Naval Aviation and Test Pilot School

Born in Euclid, Ohio, and considering Needham, Massachusetts, her hometown, Williams entered the United States Naval Academy, graduating in 1987 with a degree in Physical Science. Her military career began in the rotary-wing community. She reported to Helicopter Combat Support Squadron 3 (HC-3) for initial training in the H-46 Sea Knight, a tandem-rotor transport helicopter. Her operational tours included deployments to the Mediterranean, Red Sea, and Persian Gulf aboard the USS Sylvania and USS Concord with Helicopter Combat Support Squadron 8 (HC-8). This period honed her skills in vertical replenishment and logistical support in high-stress maritime environments.⁴

Her transition to flight testing occurred after her selection for the United States Naval Test Pilot School (USNTPS) in 1993. As a test pilot, she logged over 3,000 flight hours in more than 30 different aircraft types, identifying system vulnerabilities and validating flight envelopes—skills that would later be directly applicable to the Starliner CFT profile. She served as an instructor at the Rotary Wing Aircraft Test Directorate and as the Aircraft Handler and Assistant Air Boss aboard the USS Saipan before her selection by NASA in June 1998.⁴

2.2 The Shuttle Era: Building the Station (STS-116/117)

Williams’ first foray into low Earth orbit (LEO) occurred during the peak of the ISS construction phase. In December 2006, she launched aboard the Space Shuttle Discovery on mission STS-116. As a Flight Engineer for Expedition 14, she arrived at a station that was still growing. During this tour, she performed four spacewalks totaling 29 hours and 17 minutes, setting a record for women at the time. Her work involved the complex reconfiguration of the station's electrical power system—switching the station from its temporary power configuration to its permanent solar arrays—and the retraction of thermal radiators. She returned to Earth in June 2007 aboard Atlantis (STS-117), having spent 195 days in space.⁴

2.3 The Soyuz Era: Command and Diplomacy (Expedition 32/33)

Following the retirement of the Space Shuttle fleet in 2011, U.S. access to space became dependent on the Russian Soyuz system. Williams demonstrated her adaptability by mastering the Russian-language interface of the Soyuz TMA-05M, which she launched aboard in July 2012 from the Baikonur Cosmodrome. During Expeditions 32 and 33, she assumed command of the ISS, becoming only the second woman to do so. This tenure was marked by critical maintenance EVAs to repair an ammonia leak in the station’s thermal control system radiators, a hazardous task requiring precise manipulation of the station’s cooling infrastructure. Her ability to lead a multinational crew during technical crises was established during this mission, laying the groundwork for her leadership during Expedition 72.⁵

3. The Commercial Crew Program and the Starliner Assignment

The context of Williams' final mission lies in the Commercial Crew Program (CCP), NASA's initiative to stimulate the development of privately built crew transportation systems. The strategy relied on "dissimilar redundancy"—funding two separate providers (SpaceX and Boeing) to ensure that if one vehicle was grounded, the other could maintain access to the ISS.

3.1 The "Cadre" and Vehicle Development

Williams was selected as one of the "Commercial Crew Cadre" of veteran astronauts assigned to work directly with industry partners. Her background as a helicopter test pilot made her particularly suited for the CST-100 Starliner, a vehicle that retained significant manual control capabilities compared to the more automated SpaceX Dragon. She and Barry "Butch" Wilmore worked alongside Boeing engineers to refine the cockpit interfaces, manual piloting protocols, and emergency procedures.²

3.2 Starliner's Troubled Development Path

The road to the Crew Flight Test was fraught with technical hurdles. The uncrewed Orbital Flight Test 1 (OFT-1) in December 2019 failed to reach the ISS due to a Mission Elapsed Time (MET) software clock error. A second uncrewed test (OFT-2) in May 2022 reached the station but experienced thruster anomalies during orbital insertion. Subsequent delays were caused by the discovery of flammable tape wrapping wiring harnesses and issues with the parachute suspension lines. By the time Calypso was cleared for the CFT launch in mid-2024, the program was years behind schedule and billions of dollars over budget, placing immense pressure on the crew and the engineering teams to succeed.¹¹

4. Anatomy of an Anomaly: The Starliner Crew Flight Test

The Crew Flight Test was designed to be the final certification step before Starliner entered operational service. The mission plan called for a launch, a dock with the ISS, a docked duration of approximately eight days to test "lifeboat" modes, and a return to land in the western United States.

4.1 Launch and Ascent

On June 5, 2024, Williams and Wilmore launched from Space Launch Complex 41 at Cape Canaveral Space Force Station aboard a United Launch Alliance Atlas V rocket. The launch and ascent phase were nominal, with the Atlas V delivering Starliner into a stable insertion orbit. However, the mission profile quickly degraded as the spacecraft began its approach to the International Space Station on June 6.⁹

4.2 The "Doghouse" Thermal Runaway

The primary failure mode occurred in the Starliner Service Module, the cylindrical section housing the propulsion and power systems that is jettisoned prior to re-entry. The Service Module features four "doghouses"—aerodynamic pods protruding from the hull that house the reaction control system (RCS) and Orbital Maneuvering and Attitude Control (OMAC) thrusters.

As Williams and Wilmore executed manual piloting demonstrations and approached the station, the flight computer began to deselect RCS thrusters. Five of the 28 aft-facing RCS thrusters failed to fire or were inhibited by the software due to low thrust readings. This loss of authority forced the crew to perform a "hot-fire" reset to regain control, a tense procedure performed while drifting near the station.¹¹

Engineering Root Cause:

Post-flight analysis and ground testing at NASA’s White Sands Test Facility revealed a critical thermal design flaw. The thrusters were subjected to a high-frequency "pulse" duty cycle to maintain precise attitude during docking. This pulsing generated intense heat that the "doghouse" enclosures could not dissipate.

• Insulation Trap: The thermal blankets and aero-shells designed to protect the thrusters from the cold of deep space inadvertently trapped heat during rapid firing sequences.¹³

• Teflon Extrusion: The oxidizer valves within the thrusters utilized Teflon (polytetrafluoroethylene) seals, or "poppets." The trapped heat caused the Teflon to expand beyond its design limits. Because the seals were constrained, the material "extruded," deforming and physically blocking the flow of the Nitrogen Tetroxide (NTO) oxidizer.

• Combustion Instability: With the oxidizer flow restricted, the thrusters experienced "lean" combustion, leading to low chamber pressure and eventual shutdown. Ground tests confirmed that the Teflon could vaporize or deform significantly at the temperatures experienced during the flight profile.¹¹

4.3 The Helium Manifold Leaks

Compounding the thruster failures was a degradation of the helium pressurization system. Helium is used to force propellant from the tanks into the engines.

• Leak Progression: One small helium leak was detected prior to launch but was deemed to be within safety margins. However, during the flight, four additional leaks developed in the Service Module manifold.

• Impact: The loss of helium pressure threatened the functionality of the larger OMAC thrusters required for the critical de-orbit burn. If helium pressure dropped too low, the spacecraft might not be able to execute the braking maneuver required to re-enter Earth's atmosphere. The leaks were attributed to flange seals that likely degraded under the vibrational loads of launch and the thermal stresses of the doghouse overheating.¹¹

5. The Summer of Uncertainty: Decision Making in Crisis

Following the successful but degraded docking on June 6, 2024, the mission entered a prolonged phase of data analysis. What was scheduled as an eight-day stay extended through June, July, and August as engineers on the ground attempted to model the reliability of the thrusters for the return trip.

5.1 The "Integrated Failure" Scenario

The primary concern for NASA mission managers was the potential for an "integrated failure mechanism" during the de-orbit burn. The de-orbit burn requires a precise amount of thrust to lower the perigee into the atmosphere.

• The Fear: If the OMAC thrusters were fired for the de-orbit burn, the associated heat generation might trigger a cascading failure of the adjacent RCS thrusters (due to the doghouse thermal linking) and accelerate the helium leaks.

• The Consequence: If the RCS system failed during the burn, the capsule could lose attitude control and begin tumbling. A tumbling spacecraft cannot orient its heat shield correctly for re-entry, leading to a loss of vehicle and crew.¹⁵

5.2 The Boeing-NASA Divergence

A significant divergence in risk assessment emerged between Boeing and NASA. Boeing expressed confidence that the redundancy of the system (even with degraded thrusters) was sufficient to return the crew. They pointed to ground tests suggesting the Teflon seals would contract once cooled. However, NASA, still operating under the safety culture reforms instituted after the Challenger and Columbia disasters, was unwilling to accept the uncertainty. Since the Service Module is jettisoned and burns up, no physical inspection of the failed hardware was possible; decisions had to be made based solely on telemetry and ground simulations.¹⁶

5.3 The "Safe Haven" Decision

On August 24, 2024, NASA Administrator Bill Nelson announced the formal decision: the risks of returning Williams and Wilmore on Starliner were too high. The spacecraft would return autonomously, and the crew would remain on the ISS as "safe haven" residents, awaiting a ride home on a future SpaceX vehicle. This decision fundamentally altered the status of Williams and Wilmore from test pilots to long-duration expedition crew members.¹⁷ Starliner Calypso undocked and landed successfully—but empty—in New Mexico on September 7, 2024. Telemetry from the landing showed that some thrusters did indeed experience higher-than-expected heating, validating NASA’s caution.¹⁸

6. Expedition 72: Adaptation, Science, and Command

The transition from an eight-day sprint to a nine-month marathon required immense psychological and operational adaptability. Williams and Wilmore were integrated into the rotation of Expedition 71 and subsequently Expedition 72.

6.1 Logistics of Long Duration

The crew had launched with minimal personal supplies. The ISS program had to utilize scheduled cargo resupply missions—specifically Northrop Grumman’s Cygnus and SpaceX’s Cargo Dragon—to send up specific clothing, hygiene items, and prescription medications required for a 286-day stay. The crew had to rely on the station's "pantry" for food until their specific dietary preferences could be resupplied.¹⁹

6.2 Assumption of Command (Expedition 72)

In September 2024, as the crew rotation occurred, Sunita Williams formally assumed command of the International Space Station for Expedition 72. This marked her second time commanding the orbiting laboratory. Her leadership was critical in maintaining crew cohesion among the mixed crew of "stranded" Starliner astronauts, regularly scheduled SpaceX Crew-8/Crew-9 astronauts, and Russian cosmonauts. Her previous experience with long-duration isolation and her familiarity with Russian operations helped stabilize the social dynamic of the station during a period of intense external media scrutiny.¹

6.3 Scientific Research Portfolio

Despite the unexpected nature of her stay, Williams maintained a full schedule of scientific research, contributing to hundreds of experiments.

• Space Botany (Plant Habitat-07): Williams acted as the primary operator for the Advanced Plant Habitat, cultivating Red Romaine lettuce. This experiment investigated the effects of microgravity on plant water uptake and the microbiome of the root systems. Williams was responsible for thinning seedlings and harvesting samples to determine if space-grown crops are safe for consumption and resistant to fungal pathogens.²⁰

• Combustion Physics (SoFIE): She operated the Solid Fuel Ignition and Extinction (SoFIE) experiment within the Combustion Integrated Rack (CIR). This research involved burning solid materials in microgravity to understand flammability limits and fire growth rates, data that is essential for designing fire safety protocols for future lunar and Martian habitats.²²

• Robotics (Astrobee): Williams conducted calibration and testing of the Astrobee free-flying robots. These autonomous, cube-shaped devices are designed to assist with routine inventory and sensing tasks. Her work helped refine the docking algorithms and cargo-manipulation capabilities of the robotic assistants.²³

6.4 Critical Maintenance and EVAs

Williams’ tenure on Expedition 72 also involved heavy maintenance.

• The Toilet Pump: In July 2024, Williams and astronaut Matthew Dominick performed a critical repair on the station’s water recovery system, replacing a pressure control pump motor in the Tranquility module's toilet system—a glamorous but essential task for life support.²⁴

• Spacewalks 91 and 92: In January 2025, Williams donned a spacesuit for two additional EVAs, bringing her career total to nine. Working with astronaut Nick Hague, she ventured outside to remove a faulty Radio Frequency Group (RFG) antenna from the S-band communications system and to swab the station's exterior for microbial life. These EVAs were physically demanding, requiring her to manipulate tools while anchored to the Canadarm2 robotic arm.²⁵

7. The Logistics of Rescue: The Crew-9 Reconfiguration

Bringing Williams and Wilmore home required a complex logistical ballet involving the reconfiguration of the SpaceX Crew-9 mission.

7.1 The Crew-9 Seat Swap

SpaceX Crew-9 was originally scheduled to launch four astronauts: Commander Zena Cardman, Pilot Nick Hague, and Mission Specialists Stephanie Wilson and Aleksandr Gorbunov. To create seats for the Starliner crew, NASA made the difficult decision to remove Cardman and Wilson from the flight. Crew-9 launched in September 2024 with only Hague and Gorbunov, flying with two empty seats and ballast to maintain the center of gravity.¹⁷

7.2 The Suits and Safety Protocols

One of the most significant technical hurdles was the incompatibility of pressure suits. Starliner suits connect to the Boeing life support and communications umbilical system, which is physically different from the SpaceX Dragon interface.

• The "Cargo Pallet" Contingency: For a brief window between Starliner's departure and Crew-9's arrival, the only emergency escape option for Williams and Wilmore was to ride in the cargo pallet area of the docked Crew-8 Dragon. In this scenario, they would have been unsuited, strapped to the floor of the capsule—a high-risk contingency that fortunately was never enacted.²⁷

• Fit Checks: When Crew-9 arrived, they delivered new custom-fitted SpaceX Intravehicular Activity (IVA) suits for Williams and Wilmore. The astronauts had to perform on-orbit "fit checks," testing the zippers, helmet audio connections, and seat liners to ensure they could endure the G-forces of re-entry safely.²⁸

8. Physiological Implications of the 286-Day Mission

The extension of the mission from eight days to nearly ten months imposed a severe physiological toll on the astronauts, particularly given Williams’ age (60) at the time of the mission.

8.1 Musculoskeletal Degradation

In the absence of gravity, the human skeleton ceases to bear weight, leading to rapid bone demineralization. Astronauts can lose 1% to 1.5% of their bone mass per month, particularly in the femoral neck and lumbar spine. Over nine months, this could equate to a decade of age-related osteoporosis. Williams adhered to a strict countermeasure protocol, exercising 2.5 hours per day using the Advanced Resistive Exercise Device (ARED) to load her skeletal system, alongside treadmill running to maintain cardiovascular health.³⁰

8.2 Neuro-Vestibular and Vision Changes

Long-duration spaceflight induces a fluid shift where blood and lymph migrate from the legs to the head. This causes "puffy face" syndrome and increases intracranial pressure, which can flatten the back of the eyeball—a condition known as Spaceflight-Associated Neuro-ocular Syndrome (SANS). Upon return to Earth, the vestibular system (inner ear) requires weeks to recalibrate. Astronauts often experience extreme dizziness, nausea, and an inability to walk in a straight line as their brains relearn to interpret gravity signals.³²

8.3 The "Gravity Sucks" Phenomenon

Upon splashing down on March 18, 2025, Williams and Wilmore were extracted from the capsule and immediately placed on reclining stretchers to prevent orthostatic hypotension (fainting due to blood rushing to the feet). In her initial post-flight comments, Williams famously remarked, "Gravity sucks," a succinct summary of the physical heaviness and coordination difficulties experienced during the "R+45" (Return plus 45 days) rehabilitation period. This protocol involves intensive physical therapy, water aerobics, and balance training to restore functional mobility.¹⁹

9. Political Fallout and Industry Impact

The Starliner mission became a lightning rod for political discourse regarding the efficacy of NASA’s contracting methods and the reliability of legacy aerospace prime contractors.

9.1 The "Stranded" Narrative

Throughout late 2024, a media narrative took hold describing the astronauts as "stranded" or "marooned." This was exacerbated by comments from political figures, including former President Donald Trump and SpaceX CEO Elon Musk. Trump notably commented on the "overtime" the astronauts were working and suggested he would pay them from his own pocket, highlighting the public perception of the mission as a failure of government planning.³⁵ Musk used the incident to contrast SpaceX’s reliability with Boeing’s struggles, reinforcing the shift in industry dominance.³⁶

9.2 The Astronauts' Response

In post-flight press conferences, both Williams and Wilmore pushed back against the "stranded" narrative. They emphasized their training and their role as active crew members of the ISS. Williams stated, "We were just really focused on what we were doing... The International Space Station, the people, the engineering, and the science are truly awe-inspiring".³⁶ Their refusal to engage in the political fray helped preserve the dignity of the astronaut office despite the external noise.

9.3 Industrial Consequences for Boeing

The inability of Starliner to complete its certification flight with crew on board has forced NASA to delay the operational rotation of Starliner-1. This leaves the agency reliant on a single provider (SpaceX) for a longer period than intended, maintaining a single-point-of-failure risk in the US crew access capability. The retirement of Williams, the astronaut most intimate with the Starliner design, represents a loss of critical institutional knowledge as Boeing attempts to redesign the valves and thrusters for future flights.¹²

10. Conclusion: A Legacy of Endurance

Sunita Williams’ retirement in January 2026 marked the conclusion of an era. Her career statistics place her in the upper echelon of space explorers, but her legacy is defined by the resilience she displayed during her final, troubled mission. Faced with a critical hardware failure that turned a short test flight into a nearly year-long expedition, she seamlessly transitioned from test pilot to station commander, managed a complex scientific portfolio, executed critical spacewalks, and navigated the geopolitical and logistical complexities of a cross-platform rescue.

Her career arc—from the heavy-lift days of the Shuttle to the modular diplomacy of the Soyuz and finally to the chaotic birth of the commercial crew era—mirrors the evolution of spaceflight itself. The data gathered during her extended stay, particularly regarding the long-term durability of the human body and the failure modes of the Starliner propulsion system, will inform the design of the Artemis missions to the Moon and Mars.

As NASA Administrator Jared Isaacman noted upon her retirement, Williams was a "trailblazer" whose work laid the foundation for the next generation. Her ability to endure the unexpected, to command through crisis, and to return with her humor and professionalism intact ("Gravity sucks") ensures that the Starliner CFT, while technically flawed, was operationally a triumph of human adaptability.¹

11. Appendix: Technical Data and Chronologies

11.1 Detailed Mission Timeline (2024–2025)

Date	Event	Description
June 5, 2024	Launch	Starliner Calypso launches on Atlas V from Cape Canaveral.9
June 6, 2024	Docking	5 RCS thrusters fail; helium leaks detected; hot-fire reset required to dock.11
June–Aug 2024	Testing	Ground testing at White Sands confirms Teflon seal extrusion.14
Aug 24, 2024	Decision	NASA decides on uncrewed return; Crew-9 manifest altered.17
Sept 7, 2024	Landing	Starliner lands uncrewed; thruster heating confirmed.18
Sept 29, 2024	Rescue Crew	SpaceX Crew-9 arrives with suits for Williams/Wilmore.41
Jan 2025	EVAs	Williams performs EVAs 91 & 92 (RFG repair).26
Mar 18, 2025	Return	Splashdown in Gulf of Mexico aboard Dragon.42
Dec 27, 2025	Retirement	Williams officially leaves NASA service.1

11.2 Physiological Rehabilitation Protocol (R+45)

Phase	Duration	Focus Area	Activities
Acute	Days 1–7	Cardiovascular & Vestibular	Reclining rest, compression garments, assisted walking, water therapy.19
Conditioning	Days 8–21	Musculoskeletal	Resistance training, core stabilization, balance board drills.43
Functional	Days 22–45	Mobility & Strength	Return to driving, running, full impact loading.44
Long-Term	1–3 Years	Bone Density	Monitoring of femoral/spinal density return.45

Works cited

1. NASA Astronaut Sunita Williams Retires After Record Career, accessed January 22, 2026, https://evrimagaci.org/gpt/nasa-astronaut-sunita-williams-retires-after-record-career-524888

2. NASA astronaut Suni Williams retires after 608 days in space and nine spacewalks, accessed January 22, 2026, https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2026/01/260122032004.htm

3. NASA astronaut Sunita Williams retires after 27 years of service, accessed January 22, 2026, https://www.aninews.in/news/world/us/nasa-astronaut-sunita-williams-retires-after-27-years-of-service20260121074716

4. NASA astronaut Sunita Williams retires after 27 years: Inside her journey from education to record-breaking spacewalks | - The Times of India, accessed January 22, 2026, https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/science/nasa-astronaut-sunita-williams-retires-after-27-years-inside-her-journey-from-education-to-record-breaking-spacewalks/articleshow/126937292.cms

5. Sunita Williams, Indian-origin NASA astronaut who was stuck at space station for months, retires, accessed January 22, 2026, https://m.economictimes.com/news/international/world-news/sunita-williams-indian-origin-nasa-astronaut-who-was-stuck-at-space-station-for-months-retires/articleshow/126912462.cms

6. Suni Williams Retires As A NASA Astronaut, accessed January 22, 2026, https://orbitaltoday.com/2026/01/23/suni-williams-retires-as-a-nasa-astronaut/

7. NASA - Suni Williams retired effective Dec. 27, 2025, accessed January 22, 2026, https://forum.nasaspaceflight.com/index.php?topic=64229.0

8. NASA astronaut Sunita Williams retires after 27 years—A look at the Indian-American trailblazer's stellar career, accessed January 22, 2026, https://www.livemint.com/science/news/nasa-astronaut-sunita-williams-retires-after-27-years-of-service-three-iss-missions-11768964276685.html

9. Sunita L. Williams - NASA, accessed January 22, 2026, https://www.nasa.gov/people/sunita-l-williams/

10. A Record-Setting NASA Astronaut Says Goodbye, accessed January 22, 2026, https://scitechdaily.com/a-record-setting-nasa-astronaut-says-goodbye/

11. Newly revealed details on Boeing Starliner's mission highlight systemic engineering challenges - R&D World, accessed January 22, 2026, https://www.rdworldonline.com/newly-revealed-details-on-boeing-starliners-mission-highlight-systemic-engineering-challenges/

12. Why the Boeing Starliner Failed - David Maiolo, accessed January 22, 2026, https://www.davidmaiolo.com/2024/10/16/why-the-boeing-starliner-failed/

13. Starliner Crew Flight Test Challenges Become Opportunities for Space Research - Evergreen Museum, accessed January 22, 2026, https://www.evergreenmuseum.org/2024/08/06/starliner-crew-flight-test-challenges-become-opportunities-for-space-research/

14. NASA Updates Starliner Status - Florida Media Now, accessed January 22, 2026, https://floridamedianow.com/2024/08/starliner-remains-at-iss/

15. Starliner's uncertain future - The Space Review, accessed January 22, 2026, https://www.thespacereview.com/article/4842/1

16. Starliner's Unexpected Odyssey: A lesson in spaceflight resilience - PoliSpace, accessed January 22, 2026, https://polispace.it/starliners-unexpected-odyssey-a-lesson-in-spaceflight-resilience/

17. SpaceX Crew-9 - Wikipedia, accessed January 22, 2026, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SpaceX_Crew-9

18. Further delays of Starliner's next flight mark anniversary of its first crewed Space Station docking - Spaceflight Now, accessed January 22, 2026, https://spaceflightnow.com/2025/06/07/further-delays-of-starliners-next-flight-mark-anniversary-of-its-first-crewed-space-station-docking/

19. How astronauts adjust when back on Earth after being in space - WXXI News, accessed January 22, 2026, https://www.wxxinews.org/npr-news/2025-03-19/how-astronauts-adjust-when-back-on-earth-after-being-in-space

20. Immunity, Botany Studies Wrap Week Before Cargo Mission Arrives Saturday - NASA, accessed January 22, 2026, https://www.nasa.gov/blogs/spacestation/2024/11/22/immunity-botany-studies-wrap-week-before-cargo-mission-arrives-saturday/

21. SpaceX Dragon Prepped for Earth Splashdown: Science, Bacteria, and Space Plants Aboard - SciTechDaily, accessed January 22, 2026, https://scitechdaily.com/spacex-dragon-prepped-for-earth-splashdown-science-bacteria-and-space-plants-aboard/

22. NASA Astronauts Butch Wilmore and Suni Williams conduct International Space Station Research - YouTube, accessed January 22, 2026, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6A0ptLrY_WM

23. Crew Off-Duty Monday Before Week of Research, Cargo Spacecraft Missions - NASA, accessed January 22, 2026, https://www.nasa.gov/blogs/spacestation/2025/02/24/crew-off-duty-monday-before-week-of-research-and-cargo-ship-missions/

24. Maintenance Tasks Continue Into Friday for Crew - NASA, accessed January 22, 2026, https://www.nasa.gov/blogs/spacestation/2024/07/05/maintenance-tasks-continue-into-friday-for-crew/

25. NASA astronaut Suni Williams sets new record on 5.5-hour spacewalk outside ISS (video), accessed January 22, 2026, https://www.space.com/space-exploration/international-space-station/nasa-astronauts-free-stuck-radio-unit-collect-microbes-and-set-record-on-station-spacewalk

26. Spacewalks resume from U.S. segment of ISS after six month hiatus - NASASpaceFlight.com, accessed January 22, 2026, https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2025/01/iss-roundup-012425/

27. NASA astronauts can't wear Boeing Starliner spacesuits in SpaceX's Dragon. Here's why, accessed January 22, 2026, https://www.space.com/boeing-starliner-astronauts-nasa-spacex-crew-dragon

28. NASA Astronauts Wilmore, Williams Complete Move to Crew-9 Spacecraft, accessed January 22, 2026, https://www.nasa.gov/blogs/commercialcrew/2024/10/01/nasa-astronauts-wilmore-williams-complete-move-to-crew-9-spacecraft/

29. Dragon Suit, Seat Checks During Crew Departure Preps and Space Science - NASA, accessed January 22, 2026, https://www.nasa.gov/blogs/spacestation/2024/10/01/dragon-suit-seat-checks-during-crew-departure-preps-and-space-science/

30. accessed January 22, 2026, https://m.economictimes.com/magazines/panache/sunita-williams-space-station-workout-routine-will-surprise-you-what-time-she-wakes-up/articleshow/113340209.cms#:~:text=Wilmore%20starts%20his%20day%20at,%2C%20which%20is%20quite%20nice.%E2%80%9D

31. NASA astronauts return to Earth after 9 months: How space changes the body - Al Jazeera, accessed January 22, 2026, https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2025/3/19/nasa-astronauts-return-to-earth-how-does-space-change-the-human-body

32. Bone breakdown, muscle loss: What nine months in space does to the body - SBS, accessed January 22, 2026, https://www.sbs.com.au/news/article/bone-breakdown-muscle-loss-what-nine-months-in-space-does-to-the-body/oot196cji

33. NASA astronauts have a long road of recovery ahead | GBH - WGBH, accessed January 22, 2026, https://www.wgbh.org/news/local/2025-03-25/nasa-astronauts-have-a-long-road-of-recovery-ahead

34. Doctor reveals how long it will really take 'stranded' astronauts to recover from 286 days in space - UNILAD Tech, accessed January 22, 2026, https://www.uniladtech.com/science/space/nasa/doctor-reveals-how-long-stranded-astronauts-recovery-period-804725-20250319

35. Trump suggests he'll pay overtime for formerly stranded astronauts 'out of my own pocket', accessed January 22, 2026, https://www.foxbusiness.com/politics/trump-suggests-hell-pay-overtime-formerly-stranded-astronauts-out-my-own-pocket

36. Suni Williams, Starliner astronaut, retires after 27 years at Nasa, accessed January 22, 2026, https://www.theguardian.com/science/2026/jan/21/suni-williams-astronaut-retires-nasa

37. 'We weren't stuck': Nasa astronauts tell of space odyssey and reject claims of neglect | Nasa, accessed January 22, 2026, https://www.theguardian.com/science/2025/mar/31/nasa-astronauts-iss-trump-musk

38. Stranded astronaut says he believes Musk's claims that Biden refused to conduct rescue mission - Fox News, accessed January 22, 2026, https://www.foxnews.com/politics/stranded-astronaut-says-he-believes-musks-claims-biden-refused-conduct-rescue-mission

39. NASA Astronaut Suni Williams Retires, accessed January 22, 2026, https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-astronaut-suni-williams-retires/

40. Sunita Williams retires: What happened when she was stuck in space for 9 months?, accessed January 22, 2026, https://www.indiatoday.in/science/story/sunita-williams-nasa-space-travel-boeiing-spacex-retirement-astronaut-stuck-in-space-for-9-months-2855344-2026-01-21

41. Welcome Home! NASA's SpaceX Crew-9 Back on Earth After Science Mission, accessed January 22, 2026, https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/welcome-home-nasas-spacex-crew-9-back-on-earth-after-science-mission/

42. Back to Earth, Forward to the Future: NASA's SpaceX Crew-9 Returns, accessed January 22, 2026, https://www.nasa.gov/centers-and-facilities/johnson/back-to-earth-forward-to-the-future-nasas-spacex-crew-9-returns/

43. NASA astronauts Sunita Williams and Butch Wilmore's 45-day rehabilitation; how do astronauts recover after long space missions | - The Times of India, accessed January 22, 2026, https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/science/nasa-astronauts-sunita-williams-and-butch-wilmores-45-day-rehabilitation-how-do-astronauts-recover-after-long-space-missions/articleshow/119437874.cms

44. Sunita Williams Return Live Updates: Sunita Williams, Butch Wilmore begin 45-day rehab after unexpectedly long ISS stay - The Times of India, accessed January 22, 2026, https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/science/sunita-williams-earth-return-news-live-updates-nasa-astronauts-butch-wilmore-spacex-dragon-hatch-return-after-90-days/liveblog/119145183.cms

45. This is why returning astronaut Sunita Williams' hair turned white - Ynetnews, accessed January 22, 2026, https://www.ynetnews.com/health_science/article/rk9gmwk61x