The Dawn of Commercial Space Habitats: Haven-1, and the Engineering of Artificial Gravity

Abstract

As the International Space Station (ISS) approaches its planned decommissioning in 2030, the global aerospace sector stands at a critical juncture. The transition from government-monopolized orbital infrastructure to a commercial service model—facilitated by NASA's Commercial Low Earth Orbit Destinations (CLD) program—has catalyzed a new era of private space station development. Among the contenders vying to succeed the ISS, Vast Space has emerged with a distinct operational philosophy centered on vertical integration, aggressive hardware-rich development, and a singular long-term focus on artificial gravity. This report provides a comprehensive, expert-level analysis of the Haven-1 module, currently targeted for launch in May 2026. It examines the station's technical architecture, including its open-loop life support systems, Starlink-enabled avionics, and unique artificial gravity capabilities. Furthermore, the report details the successful pathfinder mission, Haven Demo, conducted in late 2025, and delineates the strategic roadmap for Haven-2 and the eventual deployment of large-scale rotating habitats in the 2030s.

1. Introduction: The Commercialization of Low Earth Orbit

For over a quarter of a century, the International Space Station has served as the preeminent outpost for human civilization in the cosmos. It has been a symbol of diplomatic cooperation and a laboratory for microgravity research. However, the aging infrastructure of the ISS, coupled with the shifting priorities of national space agencies toward lunar and Martian exploration, has necessitated a paradigm shift in Low Earth Orbit (LEO) operations. The future of LEO is commercial, driven by private entities acting not merely as contractors, but as owner-operators of orbital real estate.

In this competitive landscape, companies such as Axiom Space, Blue Origin, and Voyager Space have proposed various architectures to replace the ISS.¹ However, the timeline for these projects has been fluid, with significant delays plaguing the industry. Against this backdrop, Vast Space has positioned itself as a "dark horse" capable of disrupting the established timeline.² Unlike competitors reliant on complex international consortiums or unproven future launch vehicles, Vast has predicated its strategy on existing, flight-proven transportation systems—specifically the SpaceX Falcon 9 and Dragon platform—to accelerate the deployment of habitable volume.

The cornerstone of this strategy is Haven-1. Far from a "paper station," Haven-1 is a hardware-reality project that has already passed significant manufacturing milestones as of early 2026. It is designed to be the world's first commercial space station, a single-module habitat that will not only host professional and private astronauts but also conduct the first commercial experiments in artificial gravity.³ This report analyzes the Haven-1 architecture not as an isolated artifact, but as the foundational node in a multi-decadal roadmap aiming to solve the physiological challenges of long-term human spaceflight through rotation.³

2. Vast Space: Corporate Philosophy and Heritage

Founded in 2021 by Jed McCaleb, a seasoned software entrepreneur, Vast Space operates with a philosophy distinct from traditional aerospace prime contractors.⁵ The company's approach is characterized by high levels of vertical integration and a willingness to self-fund initial development to bypass the bureaucratic lethargy often associated with government procurement cycles.

2.1 The "Hardware-Rich" Development Strategy

In an industry often criticized for "PowerPoint engineering"—where designs remain theoretical for years—Vast has emphasized rapid prototyping and metal-cutting. By late 2025, the company had already manufactured and tested the primary flight structure of Haven-1 at its facilities in Long Beach, California.³ This strategy extends to subsystem development; rather than relying solely on external vendors, Vast has internalized the manufacturing of critical components, including avionics and structural panels, to maintain tight control over quality and schedule.³

2.2 Strategic Acquisitions and Partnerships

While prioritizing in-house development, Vast has strategically integrated external expertise. The acquisition and integration of teams from Launcher (a small launch vehicle company) provided Vast with immediate capabilities in propulsion and fluid management systems.⁷ Furthermore, the company has forged a deep operational partnership with SpaceX. This collaboration is not limited to launch services; it includes the integration of SpaceX’s Starlink connectivity into the station’s avionics and the use of the Crew Dragon vehicle for all human transport.⁸ This symbiosis reduces technical risk by pairing Vast's novel habitat technology with SpaceX's proven human spaceflight capabilities.

3. The Haven-1 Pathfinder: Technical Architecture

Haven-1 represents a return to the "monolithic" station architecture, reminiscent of the early Salyut or Skylab stations, but modernized with 21st-century materials and electronics. It is designed to fit entirely within the payload fairing of a Falcon 9 Block 5 rocket, eliminating the need for complex on-orbit assembly spacewalks for its initial configuration.⁸

3.1 Structural Dimensions and Mass Properties

The primary pressure shell of Haven-1 is constructed from stainless steel, a material selected for its favorable strength-to-weight ratio, durability in the thermal extremes of space, and manufacturability.³ The station’s physical envelope is constrained by the lift capabilities of the Falcon 9.

• Total Length: 10.1 meters (33 feet).¹⁰

• Diameter: 4.4 meters (14 feet).¹⁰

• Launch Mass: Approximately 14,000 kilograms (31,000 lbs).¹⁰

• Habitable Volume: 45 cubic meters.¹¹

• Total Pressurized Volume: 80 cubic meters.¹¹

This volume is significantly smaller than the ISS (388 cubic meters habitable), but comparable to early space station modules. It is optimized for a crew of four astronauts conducting missions of up to 30 days.⁸

3.2 Orbital Parameters

Haven-1 is targeted for insertion into a Low Earth Orbit with an inclination of 51.6 degrees and an altitude of approximately 425 kilometers (264 miles).¹⁰ This inclination is critical for two reasons:

1. Launch Logistics: It aligns with the standard ascent corridors from the Kennedy Space Center used for ISS missions.

2. Operational Compatibility: It matches the orbital plane of the ISS, facilitating potential cross-compatibility with visiting vehicles and ground tracking networks established for the ISS program.

3.3 Power Generation and Distribution

Energy independence is achieved through a deployable solar array system. Unlike the massive trusses of the ISS, Haven-1 utilizes body-mounted and deployable panels that generate a peak power of 13.2 kilowatts (13,200 Watts).³ The solar cells are triple-junction photovoltaics, the industry standard for high-efficiency power generation in the vacuum of space.⁶

Power is managed by a Power Distribution Unit (PDU) that routes electricity to the station’s avionics, propulsion systems, and the payload racks.⁶ The system includes a battery network to sustain the station during the orbital night—the roughly 45-minute period during each 90-minute orbit when the Earth blocks the sun.

3.4 Thermal Control Systems

Managing the thermal environment in space is a challenge of rejection, not just generation. Haven-1 employs a liquid cooling loop system that circulates fluid through additively manufactured cold plates.³ These cold plates are attached to heat-generating components such as avionics computers and payload experiments. The heated fluid is then pumped to external radiators, which radiate the thermal energy into deep space.

Vast has conducted extensive vibration testing on these radiators to ensure they can survive the acoustic environment of launch.³ As of late 2025, thermal vacuum chamber (TVAC) simulations had verified the performance of the thermal pump tray assemblies, ensuring the welding and fluid dynamics perform as predicted in the vacuum of space.³

3.5 Propulsion and Attitude Control

To maintain its orbit against atmospheric drag and to perform orientation maneuvers, Haven-1 integrates a propulsion system provided by Impulse Space. The station utilizes the "Saiph" thruster, a chemical propulsion unit designed for rapid maneuvers.³

For fine pointing and attitude control—essential for keeping solar arrays pointed at the sun and antennas pointed at data relays—the station relies on a system of six Control Moment Gyroscopes (CMGs).³ These devices function on the principle of conservation of angular momentum. Each CMG contains a flywheel spinning at high velocity. By tilting the gimbal of the spinning flywheel, torque is transferred to the station, causing it to rotate. This system allows Haven-1 to change its orientation without expending propellant, a critical capability for extending the station's operational life.

3.6 Avionics and Connectivity: The Starlink Advantage

A defining technological differentiator for Haven-1 is its integration of Starlink connectivity. While the ISS relies on the Tracking and Data Relay Satellite System (TDRSS)—a legacy network with limited bandwidth available for commercial users—Haven-1 is equipped with laser terminals compatible with SpaceX’s Starlink constellation.⁶

This architecture provides the station with Gigabit-speed, low-latency internet connectivity. The implications of this are profound:

• Scientific Throughput: Researchers on the ground can receive high-fidelity data, including 4K video streams, from their experiments in real-time.⁹

• Crew Welfare: Astronauts can use personal devices to video chat with family, stream media, and browse the internet, significantly reducing the psychological isolation of spaceflight.⁹

• Public Engagement: The high bandwidth allows for continuous "always-on" video monitoring, potentially democratizing the experience of spaceflight for audiences on Earth.⁶

4. The Vast-1 Mission: Operational Profile

The inaugural crewed mission to the station, designated Vast-1, is scheduled to launch shortly after the station's deployment. With the station targeting a launch NET May 2026, the first crew is expected to arrive once on-orbit commissioning is complete.³

4.1 Launch and Docking Mechanics

The crew of four will launch aboard a SpaceX Crew Dragon spacecraft. The mission profile involves a standard rendezvous trajectory, culminating in an autonomous docking to Haven-1’s forward port. The station is equipped with a passive docking adapter fully compatible with the International Docking System Standard (IDSS).³ Fit checks for this hardware were successfully completed in late 2025, verifying the mechanical interface between the station and the Dragon vehicle.³

4.2 Environmental Control and Life Support (ECLSS): The Open-Loop Decision

For the Haven-1 module, Vast has elected to utilize an "open-loop" Environmental Control and Life Support System (ECLSS).¹²

• Open-Loop vs. Closed-Loop: A closed-loop system, like that on the ISS, recycles urine into drinking water and scrubs CO2 to recover oxygen. These systems are heavy, complex, and require extensive maintenance. An open-loop system, conversely, relies on bringing all necessary consumables (water, oxygen) for the duration of the mission and storing all waste.

• Rationale: Given the relatively short duration of Haven-1 missions (30 days), the mass penalty of carrying consumables is outweighed by the reduction in engineering complexity and development risk. This allows Vast to field a station faster and at a lower cost.¹²

The ECLSS on Haven-1 includes:

• Atmosphere Revitalization: Oxygen tube valve systems designed to replenish the cabin air.³

• Contaminant Control: A trace contaminant control system, validated at NASA's Marshall Space Flight Center, removes volatile organic compounds and pollutants.³

• Waste Management: Eight specialized wet trash tanks that vent to a vacuum to prevent the buildup of odors and bacteria.³

While the primary system is open-loop, Vast is using Haven-1 as a testbed for future closed-loop technologies. The station will fly experiments designed to test regenerative components, allowing the company to iterate toward a "5th generation" life support system for the future Haven-2.¹²

5. The Artificial Gravity Experiment

The most scientifically significant objective of the Vast-1 mission is the demonstration of artificial gravity. This experiment addresses the fundamental barrier to multi-year human space exploration: the physiological degradation caused by microgravity. Long-duration weightlessness leads to bone mineral density loss (approximately 1-1.5% per month), muscle atrophy, and vision impairment due to fluid shifts.⁵

5.1 Mechanics of the Spin

To generate gravity, Haven-1 will perform a spin maneuver while the Crew Dragon is docked. The station's propulsion system will initiate a rotation of the entire stack (Station + Dragon) around its combined center of mass.⁸

• Target Gravity: The experiment aims to simulate lunar gravity (approximately 1/6th of Earth's gravity).⁸

• Rotation Rate: The stack will rotate at a rate calculated to produce this centripetal force at the periphery of the habitable volume.

This will be the first time a commercial space station has deliberately spun to create gravity, and only the second time in history a crewed spacecraft has done so (the first being the Gemini 11 tether experiment in 1966).⁸

5.2 Scientific and Engineering Goals

The experiment serves dual purposes:

1. Physiological Research: It provides data on how the human body responds to partial gravity. This data is critical for planning future lunar bases and long-duration transit habitats.

2. Structural Validation: It tests the structural integrity of the docking mechanism and the station's hull under rotational loads.⁸ The ability of the Commercial Crew Dragon to withstand these loads has been analyzed, with data suggesting the vehicle can handle the forces involved.⁷

6. The Haven-1 Lab: A Commercial Research Facility

Beyond its role as a habitat, Haven-1 is a fully functional microgravity laboratory. The station features the Haven-1 Lab, a dedicated facility for research, development, and in-space manufacturing (ISM).³

6.1 Payload Accommodations

The lab is designed with modularity in mind. It provides 10 payload slots, standardized to the "Middeck Locker Equivalent" (MLE) form factor—roughly the size of a microwave oven.¹⁴

• Capacity: Each slot supports a payload mass of up to 30 kg.

• Power: Each slot is provided with 100 Watts of continuous power.¹⁰

• Data: Payloads are connected to the station’s Ethernet network, allowing for high-speed data downlink via Starlink.

6.2 Strategic Research Partners

Vast has cultivated a diverse ecosystem of partners to utilize these facilities, moving beyond the traditional government-only user base.

• Redwire: A leader in space infrastructure, Redwire is deploying its ADvanced Space Experiment Processor (ADSEP). This facility is used for fluid physics and biological research.¹⁴

• Yuri: This German biotech company is installing the "ScienceTaxi," a life science incubator and centrifuge that allows for biological experiments requiring temperature control and variable gravity controls at the sample level.¹⁴

• Japan Manned Space Systems Corporation (JAMSS): Leveraging decades of experience operating the Kibo module on the ISS, JAMSS is developing multi-purpose payload facilities for Haven-1, focusing on material science.¹⁵

• Interstellar Lab and Exobiosphere: These partners are focusing on bio-regenerative life support systems and automated orbital platforms for pharmaceutical development, specifically protein crystallization and disease modeling.¹⁵

The research agenda for Haven-1 includes high-value manufacturing sectors such as fiber optics (which have lower attenuation when drawn in microgravity), semiconductor production, and stem cell research.¹⁸

7. Human Systems and Interior Design

Vast has adopted a "human-centric" design philosophy, recognizing that for commercial spaceflight to scale, the environment must be more habitable than the utilitarian interiors of government stations.

7.1 Observation and Habitability

A centerpiece of the interior is the observation window. Haven-1 features a 1.1-meter diameter domed window made of fused silica.³

• Field of View: The dome offers an expansive 180-degree view of the Earth and deep space, significantly larger than standard portholes.

• Safety Testing: In 2025, this window underwent rigorous "kick tests" to ensure it could withstand accidental impacts from floating astronauts, as well as pressure and load testing in Mojave, California.³

7.2 Crew Quarters and Common Areas

The station is configured to support four crew members. Unlike the ISS, where crew members often sleep in phone-booth-sized compartments, Haven-1 offers dedicated personal quarters designed for privacy and rest.³ A deployable communal table serves as a social hub for meals and briefings, reinforcing crew cohesion. The interior surfaces are lined with soft, fire-resistant materials that dampen acoustic noise and provide a tactilely pleasing environment, a departure from the "wall of wires" aesthetic of the ISS.⁵

8. Status Update: The Haven Demo Mission (Nov 2025)

As of January 2026, Vast has already achieved a major flight milestone with the success of the Haven Demo mission. Launched in November 2025 on the SpaceX Bandwagon-4 rideshare mission, Haven Demo was a sub-scale spacecraft designed to validate the critical subsystems for Haven-1.⁶

8.1 Mission Objectives and Results

The mission was a comprehensive success.

• Power Systems: The spacecraft successfully deployed its solar arrays and confirmed a "power positive" state.⁶

• Avionics and Comms: The onboard cameras captured and transmitted 4K video of the deployment, validating the high-bandwidth telemetry chain.¹¹

• Propulsion: The mission successfully tested the Impulse Space Saiph thrusters, verifying the propulsion integration that will be used on the full-scale station.³

• Environmental Testing: Prior to launch, the hardware underwent thermal vacuum (TVAC) testing to simulate the extreme temperature cycles of orbit, ensuring the thermal control systems (cold plates and radiators) were flight-ready.³

This "fly before you buy" approach—testing subsystems in orbit before launching the crewed habitat—significantly de-risks the upcoming Haven-1 launch.

9. The Roadmap: Haven-2 and the Future of LEO

While Haven-1 is a pathfinder, Haven-2 is the proposed operational successor to the International Space Station. Vast is positioning Haven-2 as a contender for NASA's CLD program, aiming to secure the contract to host government astronauts post-2030.¹⁹

9.1 Haven-2 Specifications and Modular Growth

Haven-2 leverages the heavy-lift capability of the SpaceX Falcon Heavy (and potentially Starship in the future), allowing for modules that are significantly larger than Haven-1.

• Module Dimensions: The Haven-2 modules will be 16 meters in length (compared to 10.1m for Haven-1) while maintaining the 4.4-meter diameter.²⁰

• Volume: Each module offers 55 m³ of habitable volume and 125 m³ of pressurized volume.²⁰

• Capabilties: Unlike Haven-1, Haven-2 modules will feature two docking ports, enabling multiple visiting vehicles simultaneously, and an Extravehicular Activity (EVA) airlock for spacewalks.²⁰

9.2 The Expansion Timeline (2028-2032)

The construction of Haven-2 is planned as a rapid, modular campaign ²⁰:

• 2028 (Module 1): Launch of the first Haven-2 module. This initial capability will be "NASA certified capable" and support a crew of four with regenerative life support.

• 2030 (4-Module Complex): By launching a new module approximately every six months, the station will grow to four interconnected modules. This configuration will provide 140 m³ of habitable volume and support a crew of 8. It will also feature a dedicated "Haven Core" module.

• 2032 (Full Operational Capability): The final configuration will consist of nine modules arranged in a cross structure. This facility will rival the ISS, offering 500 m³ of habitable volume, 1,160 m³ of pressurized volume, and the capacity to host 12 astronauts.²⁰

9.3 Comparison: Haven-1 vs. Haven-2

The following table highlights the technical evolution from the demonstrator to the operational station:

Feature	Haven-1 (Pathfinder)	Haven-2 (ISS Successor)
Launch Vehicle	Falcon 9 Block 5	Falcon Heavy
Module Length	10.1 m	16.0 m
Habitable Volume	45 m³	55 m³ (per module)
Pressurized Volume	80 m³	125 m³ (per module)
Life Support	Open-Loop (Short duration)	Closed-Loop (Regenerative)
Docking Ports	1	2
Launch Date	NET May 2026	2028 (First module)
Crew Capacity	4	12 (Full station)

10. The Long-Term Vision: The Artificial Gravity Station (2035)

The ultimate culmination of Vast’s roadmap is the deployment of the Artificial Gravity Station, targeted for 2035.¹¹ While Haven-1 tests the concept of gravity via spinning, this future facility is designed from the keel up as a rotating habitat.

10.1 Technical Concept

The proposed design is a massive structure, approximately 100 meters in length (referred to as a "spinning stick" configuration).⁷

• Mechanism: The station will rotate end-over-end at approximately 3.5 revolutions per minute (RPM).¹¹

• Gravity Regimes: Due to the large radius of rotation, this spin rate can generate Earth-normal gravity (1g) at the extremities of the station, Mars-equivalent gravity at intermediate points, and microgravity at the center.⁷

• Capacity: The station will have a habitable volume of 950 m³ and support a crew of 40 people.¹¹

This facility would fundamentally alter the economics and physiology of spaceflight, allowing for permanent residency without the debilitating health effects currently associated with orbital life.

11. Market Landscape and Competitive Analysis

Vast operates within a fiercely competitive sector, yet its status in early 2026 distinguishes it from its peers.

• Axiom Space: Once the frontrunner, Axiom has faced reported financial headwinds and delays in payments to SpaceX, pushing its module launch dates.²¹

• Orbital Reef (Blue Origin/Sierra Space): While technically ambitious, the Orbital Reef project is perceived to be lagging, with a deployment timeline slipping toward 2027 or later.²

• Starlab (Voyager Space): Starlab remains a strong contender but is currently in the design review phase, whereas Vast has moved to hardware qualification.²

Vast’s competitive advantage lies in its "first-mover" potential with Haven-1. By targeting a 2026 launch with a self-contained, free-flying station, Vast aims to capture the early commercial market while competitors are still developing complex assembly architectures.

12. Conclusion

Haven-1 is more than a space station; it is a proof-of-concept for a new era of space exploration. By combining the reliability of SpaceX transportation with a vertically integrated, hardware-rich development model, Vast Space has positioned itself to fill the looming capability gap in Low Earth Orbit. The station's unique features—specifically the Starlink-enabled avionics and the groundbreaking artificial gravity experiment—address both the operational and physiological challenges of the future.

As the industry looks toward the retirement of the ISS, the successful deployment of Haven-1 in May 2026 would serve as a powerful validation of the commercial model. It would demonstrate that private industry can not only replicate the capabilities of government programs but advance them, paving the way for the massive, rotating habitats of the 2030s that may finally allow humanity to call space a home, rather than just a destination.

Works cited

1. With New Glenn Rocket a Success, Blue Origin's Next Step Is to Build a $100 Billion Orbital Reef : r/BlueOrigin - Reddit, accessed January 8, 2026, https://www.reddit.com/r/BlueOrigin/comments/1igfp9j/with_new_glenn_rocket_a_success_blue_origins_next/

2. Where are America's Commercial Space Stations in 2025?, accessed January 8, 2026, https://www.spacescout.info/2025/06/where-are-americas-commercial-space-stations-in-2025/

3. Haven-1 - Vast Space, accessed January 8, 2026, https://www.vastspace.com/haven-1

4. World's First Private Space Station, Haven-1 sets world record, accessed January 8, 2026, http://www.worldrecordacademy.org/2025/10/worlds-first-private-space-station-haven-1-sets-world-record-425432

5. Vast Space unveils Haven-1 design: it's truly a Haven in space - The Weekly Spaceman, accessed January 8, 2026, https://www.theweeklyspaceman.com/articles/pfzrabhru2rfkwsxva7prdifrnhs0g

6. Vast – Building Next-Generation Space Stations, accessed January 8, 2026, https://www.vastspace.com/

7. Vast Space LLC: General Company and Development Updates and Discussions, accessed January 8, 2026, https://forum.nasaspaceflight.com/index.php?topic=55810.280

8. Vast-1 - Wikipedia, accessed January 8, 2026, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vast-1

9. SpaceX Starlink Tapped to Connect Vast's Commercial Space Station, accessed January 8, 2026, https://www.designdevelopmenttoday.com/industries/aerospace/news/22892595/spacex-starlink-tapped-to-connect-vasts-commercial-space-station

10. Haven-1 - Wikipedia, accessed January 8, 2026, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haven-1

11. Roadmap - Vast Space, accessed January 8, 2026, https://www.vastspace.com/roadmap

12. Vast's Strategy to Achieve Continuous Human Presence in Low-Earth Orbit - Vast Space, accessed January 8, 2026, https://www.vastspace.com/updates/vasts-strategy-to-achieve-continuous-human-presence-in-low-earth-orbit

13. ECLSS Module Integrated Air Revitalization Testing, accessed January 8, 2026, https://ttu-ir.tdl.org/bitstreams/c5324590-f71f-40db-b388-7d4111d11edc/download

14. Vast Announces the Haven-1 Lab, the First Commercial Microgravity Research, Manufacturing, and Development Platform — an update by VAST - Vast Space, accessed January 8, 2026, https://www.vastspace.com/updates/vast-announces-the-haven-1-lab-the-first-commercial-microgravity-research-manufacturing-and-development-platform

15. Vast Announces Three Additional Payload Partners for the Haven-1 Lab: JAMSS, Interstellar Lab, and Exobiosphere — an update by VAST - Vast Space, accessed January 8, 2026, https://www.vastspace.com/updates/vast-announces-three-additional-payload-partners-for-the-haven-1-lab-jamss-interstellar-lab-and-exobiosphere

16. Vast Announces Three Additional Payload Partners for the Haven-1 Lab: JAMSS, Interstellar Lab, and Exobiosphere - Business Wire, accessed January 8, 2026, https://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20250408017805/en/Vast-Announces-Three-Additional-Payload-Partners-for-the-Haven-1-Lab-JAMSS-Interstellar-Lab-and-Exobiosphere

17. Vast announces 3 additional payload partners for Haven-1 Lab + signs leverage agreement with ISS National Laboratory - SatNews, accessed January 8, 2026, https://news.satnews.com/2025/04/10/vast-announces-3-additional-payload-partners-for-haven-1-lab-signs-leverage-agreement-with-iss-national-laboratory/

18. Science RFP Eligibility - Vast Space, accessed January 8, 2026, https://www.vastspace.com/science-rfp-eligibility

19. Vast Announces Haven-2, Its Proposed Space Station Designed To Succeed The International Space Station (ISS) — an update by VAST - Vast Space, accessed January 8, 2026, https://www.vastspace.com/updates/vast-announces-haven-2-its-proposed-space-station-designed-to-succeed-the-international-space-station-iss

20. Haven-2 — Vast - Vast Space, accessed January 8, 2026, https://www.vastspace.com/haven-2

21. Commercial industry gears up for ISS replacement around 2030 amid concerns, accessed January 8, 2026, https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2024/10/commercial-space-stations/

22. Vast Aims to Launch World's First Commercial Space Station by 2025, accessed January 8, 2026, https://payloadspace.com/vast-aims-to-launch-worlds-first-commercial-space-station-by-2025/